9> 
ANALYTICAL AND PEACTIOAL GEAMMAE. 



PRACTICAL GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 



WITH 



ANALYSES OF SENTENCES. 



BY 



Eev. PETER BULLIONS, D.D., 

LATE PROFESSOR OP LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADEMY, AND AUTHOR OF THE 8ERJES 
OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLISH, ON THE SAME PLAN, ETC. 



REVISED EDITION. 



t NEW TOEK: % c 
PUBLISHED BY SHELDON AND COMPANY," 

498 & 500 BROADWAY. 
1867. 



rt\\° Q 



3^ 



\'«t>7 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, by 

PETER BULLIONS, D.D., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Northern 

District* of New York. 



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PREFACE. 



It is now nearly a quarter of a century since the first publication 
of Dr. Bullions's "Principles of English Grammar." The history 
of that book, and of the " Analytical and Practical English Gram- 
mar" which followed it, has been contemporary with the progress 
we have made in mastering the principles, laws, and usages of the 
language itself; and it is safe to say that we are indebted to no one 
more than to the author of this treatise for the results that have 
been achieved. 

Among the first to discuss the Analysis of Sentences, he has given 
a clear and succinct statement of the principles relating to this 
department, and reduced all elements, and even idioms, to a simple, 
yet comprehensive system. 

This treatise is therefore not the work of a day, but the fruit 
of twenty-five years of intelligent thought, aided by the daily prac- 
tical experience of the school-room. 

In the present revised edition of the "Analytical and Practical 
English Grammar," the order of subjects, method and classification, 
which had given the former work such enviable reputation among a 
large class of our most successful teachers, have been for the most 
part retained. The language, even, has been generally preserved, 
and only such changes have been admitted as the present wants 
of the school-room seem to demand. It is hoped that the few 
alterations which have been thought necessary will enhance, rather 
than diminish, the value of the treatise as a text-book of practical 
grammar. 

The most radical departures from the text of the author's edition 
have been made in the divisions of the verb, and the classification of 
sentences ; yet these present, in point of fact, little else than a 
change of nomenclature, — the distinctive characteristics, illustrations, 
and examples being retained. 

Tables of the different parts of speech have been given, for the 
purpose of presenting to the eye of the learner, at one view, the dis- 
tinctions which are more fully discussed under the separate heads. 

Tabular classification of the analysis of the sentence have been 
presented, for the sake of greater clearness. 



IV PREFACE, 

The alterations which have been cautiously admitted in the 
phraseology of the rules of Syntax will, it is hoped, meet with favor. 

The brief divisions of accent and structure of words in their 
places, pp. 16 and 18, and the fuller discussion in the Appendix (1) 
can not but enhance the value of the book, and afford facilities for a 
more intimate acquaintance with the integral structure of our lan- 
guage, to many who will have access to no other source of such 
information. 

It is believed that little is omitted that would add value to this 
treatise as a text-book for general use, whilst much is presented, not 
found in books of its class, but so tersely and clearly stated, and so 
judiciously arranged, as not to make the volume cumbersome. 

As to the general plan and scope of the work, the following, from 
the author's Preface, is suggestive : — 

" The subject of the Analysis of Sentences * * * is here 
introduced in its proper place, and to an extent in accordance with 
its importance. Many questions on disputed points have been 
examined with much care; and something, it is hoped, has been 
done to contribute to their settlement : and when this required more 
space than was proper to be taken up in the body of the work, the 
discussion has been thrown into the Appendix. A variety of exer- 
cises has been introduced at every step, with directions for the 
manner of using them. To every part of speech, an oral exercise, 
of the inductive kind, has been annexed as a specimen of the way 
in which the mind of the learner may be trained to think and reason 
on the subject, and prepared to profit more by the exercises that 
follow. 

" By adopting the plan of a running series of numbers to mark the 
paragraphs, reference from one part to another is rendered more con- 
venient, and is employed wherever it was thought to be profitable. 

" In the Syntax, * * * the rules are arranged so that all that 
belongs to one subject is collected under one head, instead of being 
scattered in different places ; and the proper subordination of parts 
is exhibited in a series of subordinate rules, wherever it was neces- 
sary. * * * In the rules and definitions throughout, accuracy, 
brevity, euphony, and adaptation to the practical operations of the 
school-room have been particularly attended to. No startling novel- 
ties have been introduced ; at the same time, where it was thought 
that a change would be an improvement, it has been made." 

August, 1867. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Jktnguage. . . 3 

Grammar, Definitions and Divisions 3 

PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters, Divisions and Power op 5 

Elementary Sounds. 6 

Phonetic Classification 3 

Syllables „ 9 

Spelling, Rules fob. 11 

Capitals, Use of 14 

Accent 16 



PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

Words, General Divisions of IT 

Structure of 18 

Parsing of 22 

Parts of Speech 23 

Nouns, Definition and Division of 23 

Observations on 24 

Table of, and Exercises 25 

Accidents of 26 

Person of — Observations on , 27 

Gender of , 28 

Observations on 30 

Exercises on 81 

Number, Definition of 32 

Plural, Eules for 32 

Irregular 33 

Exercises on 36 

Observations on 37 

Plural of Proper Names 38 

Case of, General Eules for 39, 40 

Nominative, Use of 39 

Construction of 190, 211, 213, 219 

Possessive, Use of— how formed 39 

Observations on -. 40 

Construction of 232 

Objective, Use of 40 

Following Transitive Verbs 221 

Prepositions 224 

Without a Governing Word 226 



yi COtfTE^TS. 

PAGE. 

Nouns, Inflection of 40 

Oral Exercises on 41 

Parsing of 42 

Exercises on . 44 

Article, Parsing of 45 

Exercises on 46 

Construction of 201 

Adjectives, Definition of 4T 

Division of 48 

Table of 51 

Comparison of 51 

Eulesfor 52 

Irregular Comparison 53 

Not Compared 54 

Parsing of 55 

Oral Exercises on 56 

Exercises on 57- 

Construction of 196 

Pronouns, Definition and Division of 58 

Table of 59 

Personal , 59 

Simple 60 

Declension of.. 61 

Observations on 61 

Compound.. 64 

Parsingof, and Oral Exexr««son 64 

Exercises on 65 

Construction of 206 

* Eelative 66 

Inflection and Use of 61 

Compound 69 

Parsing of TO 

Exercises on 71 

Construction of 209 

Interrogative and Responsive . 72 

Parsingof, and Exercises on..... 73 

Adjective, Definition and Division of 74 

Possessive 75 

Distributive... 76 

Demonstrative. 67 

Indefinite 7T 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 78 

Construction of. 196 

Verbs, Definition of 79 

Classification of 80 

Oral and other Exercises on 82 

Formation of Tenses 83. 

Auxiliary 83 

Use of "Shall," "Will," etc 84 



OOKTEtfTS. Vii 

PAGE. 

Verbs, Parsingof « ♦ 85 

Auxiliary, Exercises on 85 

Anomalous Use of 89 

Inflection of ; Accidents of 90 

Voice, Active , 90 

Passive 90 

Moods, Division of 93 

Indicative 93 

Potential 93 

Subj unctive . 94 

Construction of . 23T 

Imperative 95 

Infinitive 95 

Construction of... 239 

Tenses, Division of 96 

Of the Indicative Mood 97-100 

Of the Potential Mood 100 

Of the Subjunctive Mood 101 

Of the Imperative Mood. 103 

Of the Infinitive Mood... 103 

Construction of 239 

Connection of . 246 

Paeticiples, Division of 104 

In inig in a Passive Sense 105 

as a Verbal Noun 10T 

Construction of 243-246 

Number and Person of 107 

Conjugation of 108 

Table of 109 

Of the Irregular Verb "to be" 112 

Sentences — the Subject 11G 

Of the Eegular Verb ** to love," Active Voice 117 

Parsing of 1 oo 

Oral Exercises and Exercises on.... 119 

, The Objective Case 121 

Negative Form . 123 

Interrogative Form 124 

Progressive Form 125 

Pbogbessive Form, Exercises on 125 

Passive Voice 126 

Observations on, Exercises on 128, 129 

Irregular, List of 130 

Defective. v • 136 

Impersonal 136 

Exercises 137 

Construction of 215-219 

Adverbs, Definition of 133 

Classification of 139 

Conjunctive 140 



Till COSTTE^TS, 



PAG& 

Adverbs f Formation and Derivation of 14$ 

Comparison of 6 142 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 142 

Construction of 253, 254 

Prepositions, Definition 142 

Table— List v , 145 

Observations on „, . . . 146 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 14T 

Construction of.. . 228 

Interjections, Definition and List of . 148 

Parsing 148 

Construction of 258 

Conjunctions, Definition and Division of 14$ 

Conjunctions, Table of 150 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 151,152 

Construction of ...... .♦ 253 

JPar$ing> Different Kinds of 15$ 

Etymological, Method of 15$ 

Model of 154 

Exercises in 156-161 



PAUT IIL— SYNTAX- 

Syntax, Definitions ....................... .162 

Sentences, Classification of. 16$ 

Elements of 165 

Analysis of..... ' 166' 

A Single Sentence, Its Parts. 16T 

Observations on 168 

Subjectof 170 

Modifications of. 172 

Of ModifyingWords 17$ 

Predicate of 174 

Modifications of 175 

Limiting Clauses... 17T 

Compound, Definition of. 180' 

Members, Connection of 181 

Analysis, Directions for ... 182 

Models of 18$ 

Exercises in 18T 

Construction of— General Principles 188 

Mi/ntax, Parts of 189 s 

Bulbs OF. 190-19$ 

RULES. 

Mule I. — Substantives in Apposition 19$ 

Mule II, — Adjective with a Substantive 19(> 

Comparatives and Superlatives 198 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE. 

Mule III.— Article and its Noun 201 

Mule IV,— Pronoun and its Antecedent— Special Rules 206 

Mule V. — Relative and its Antecedent 209 

Mule VI,— The Subject-Nominative 211 

Mule VII* — The Nominative Absolute or Independent 213 

Special Rules for 213 

Mule VIII,— Tub Verb and its Subject 214 

Special Rules for 215 

Mule IX, — The Predicate-Nominative 219- 

Mule X,— The Object after Transitive Verbs 221 

Special Rules 221 

Mule XL— Tub Objective after Prepositions 224 

Mule XII,— Prepositions after Certain Words 228 

Mule XIII, — Possessive Limiting Substantives 232 

Mule XIV,— Subjunctive Mood 237 

Mule XV, — Infinitive Mood . . . . 239 

Special Rules -. 239 

Mule XVI,— Participles. ., ;..... 242 

Special Rules 243 

Mule XVII,— Connection of Tenses .' 246 

Mule XVIII.— Adverbs— Special Rules 249-251 

Mule XIX, — Conjunctions 253 

Special Rules 254 

Mule XX,— Inter jections 25S 

General Mule. ." 258 

Ellipsis— When Admissible 260 

When not Admissible 262 

Parsing, Syntactical, Definition of, Model of 263 

Egcercises, Promiscuous, on Rules of Syntax 266-269 

Improper Expressions, List of .' 269, 270 

Punctuation 270 

Comma, Rules for 271 

Semicolon, Rules for , 273 

Colon, Rules for 274 

Period 275 

Interrogation 275 

Other Marks used in Writing 276, 277 

Figures, Different Kinds of 277 

Of Etymology 278 

Of Syntax 278 

Of Rhetoric , 279 

Poetic License 281-283 



PART IV.— PROSODY. 

Division of 284 

Elocution 284 

Versification 285 



X CONTENTS. 

* PAGE, 

Prosody, Versification, Feet . 285 

Poetic Pauses 292 

Composition . 293 

The Use of Grammar in Composition 295 

The Law of Language 295 

Rules for 296,297 

Hints fob Correct and Elegant Writing m 293 

Themes for Composition 305 

Appendix, 

I.— Suffixes 30T 

II.— Gender of Nouns 316 

III.— The Pronouns, Mine, Thine, etc «... 31T 

IY.— " What," as a Relative 318 

y.— -"As" as a Relative. '. 319 

VI.— Adjective Pronouns 320 

V1L— The Verb 322 

VIII.— Division of Verbs 323 

IX.— Passive Participle 324 

X.— First and Second 330 

XI.— Two First, Three Last, etc 331 

XII.— Abbreviations J 338 

XIII.— Foreign Words 836 



INTRODUCTION. 



Befobe a text-book is put into the hands of the pupil, he is already in 
practical possession of the elements of his mother-tongue. Grammar 
should supplement this practical knowledge, by reducing it to fixed 
laws ; classifying its elements, and establishing canons of criticism for 
the preservation of the purity of its forms, and giving power and ele- 
gance to expression. 

A series of preparatory exercises in a simple, and, at the first, some- 
what informal, manner, both in the discussion of the meaning and use 
of words in familiar sentences, and in the construction of such sen- 
tences, will be found of incalculable value, as tending to awaken a 
definite interest in mastering the successive steps of the science. 
These exercises should develop at least — 

I, The meanings and uses of the " constriiction-tvords" 
of the language, as — 

1. Such verbs as do, he, have, may, can, shall, etc., that are 
so closely connected with our existence, our experiences of the exter- 
nal world, and our modes of thought and speech in regard thereto. 
The words of this class have a conventional use, not for themselves, 
but chiefly as aids in expressing the relations of ideas represented by 
other words. Thus, in the expression, " Grass is green," the use of is 
is not to express existence, for that is assumed, but to indicate rela- 
tion. So, do means to act, and it is hence used to strengthen or give 
emphasis to the expression of another act ; as, " I do desire." Save 
means to possess, own, etc., and in some sense, it never loses this force, 
even as an " auxiliary." [See discussion of the auxiliaries, 329, et seq.] 

2. The meaning and force of connectives; as — 

(1.) Conjunct ions, — And means added, in addition to; hut, 
separation, and the like. 

(2.) Prepositions, or words that relate by expressing a limita- 
tion ; as — " The bock is on the table." — " The book is under the 
table." — " The book is heside the table." — " He went to the house, 
front the house, into the house," etc. 

In the same grammatical structure, the force of the phrase depends 
upon the meaning of the particles on, under, beside, etc. 

II, The Nature of the Sentence. — Grammatical distinc- 
tions, of words merely, are of little account, save as they lead to correct 
forms of speech in accordance with the laws of language. 



* INTRODUCTION. 

1. It may be readily shown by simple illustration — 
(1.) That every word is the sign of an idea. 

(2.) That related ideas are expressed by related words. 

(3.) That a judgment of the mind may be put into the form of a 
proposition, and that such proposition is expressed by a sen- 
tence. 

Every sentence consists of two parts — (1.) The word or phrase that 
names the subject of thought ; (2.) The word or form of words that 
affirms or tells something of the subject ; and this is a universal law 

After a clear exemplification of this by a sufficient number of ex- 
amples, the pupils may have practical exercises in framing sentences — 
second parts for given first parts ; and first parts of which given sec- 
ond parts may be predicated. 

2. It will be found of interest, not only as leading to a more critical 
understanding of the use of language, but as a preparation for the 
classification of verbs, to show the three forms of sentences, by 
the nature and use of their principal verbs, thus — 

(a.) " Horses eat grass." — (&.) " Birds fly." — (c.) "Sugar is sweet." 

In the first of these, the meaning of the affirming verb is such 
that the act can not be done without involving the existence of some 
person or thing as receiving it. 

In the second, the meaning is satisfied by naming the actor 
and the act. 

In the third, the chief office of the verb is to connect an attri- 
bute, expressing some quality or circumstance of the subject. See 
Syntax, Classification of Sentences. 

' III. The relation of words in a phrase or sentence follows 
the order of the relation of the ideas which they express. 

1. Words may be united without any sign; as, good boy, 
horse runs. 

2. In a few instances the inflection is the sign of relation; 
as children's shoes. 

3. When words have no neural relation, they may be put in rela- 
tion by another ivord ; as, " love of country," " grass is green," 
" John and James study," etc. At the proper time, a classification 
may be made of these distinctions. 

IV. It should always be borne in mind, that, in order to the intelli- 
gent study of Grammar, whose office it is to teach " to speak and 
write correctly," pupils must be constantly exercised in this practical 
use, that the principles which the Grammar teaches may be prac- 
tically exemplified, and power be gained in their application. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. Language is the means "by which we express 
our thoughts. 

2. Grammar treats of the laws of language, and 
the right method of using it. 

Grammar is both a Science and an Art. 

As a Science, it investigates the principles of lan- 
guage in general : as an Art, it teaches the right method 
of applying these principles to a particular language, so 
as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and proper 
manner, according to established usage. 

3. English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language with propriety. 

4z. Language is either spoken or written. 

5. The elements of spoken language, are vocal and 
articulate sounds. (25 and 26). 

6. The elements of written language are characters 
or letters which represent these sounds. 

7. Letters are formed into syllables and words : words 
into sentences ; and by these, properly uttered or written, 
men communicate their thoughts to one another. 

8. Grammar is divided into four parts : Ortliog- 
raphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

9. Orthography treats of letters and syllables ; 
Etymology, of words ; Syntax, of sentences ; 
Prosody, of elocution and versification. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PART I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 



10. Orthography treats of letters, and of the 
mode of combining them into syllables and words. * 

11. A Letter is a mark, or character, used to represent 
an elementary sound of the human yoice. 

12. There are Twenty- six letters in the English Alphabet. 

13. Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

14:. A Vowel is a letter which represents an unobstructed sound 
(25) ; and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone. The vowels 
are a 9 e 9 i 9 o 9 u 9 and w and y not before a vowel sounded in the 
same syllable, as in law, hay. 

15. A Consonant is a letter which represents an obstructed 
sound (26) ; and, in a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but 
always in connection with a vowel. The consonants are b 9 c 9 d 9 f 9 
g 9 h 9 j 9 U 9 l 9 ni 9 n, j) 9 q 9 r 9 s 9 t 9 v 9 oc 9 z 9 and w and y before 
a vowel sounded in the same syllable, as in war, youth. 

[Properly speaking, w and y are always vowels, and represent 
respectively the sounds of oo and e, as icO&h. (oo-ish), yet (e-et). They 
are sometimes called coalescents]. 

16. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound, as 
oi, in oil ; ou, in found. 

17. When a letter in a word is not used in pronunciation, it is 
called a Silent letter, as h in 7iouy ; a in bread ; e in mate. 



* Orthography is properly a part of Grammar, as it belongs to 
" the art of speaking and writing a language with propriety." Yet 
as the whole subject is treated more fully in the spelling-book and 
dictionary, a brief synopsis of its principles only is here given, rather 
as a matter of form, than with a view to its being particularly studied 
at this stage. The teacher may therefore, if he thinks proper, pass 
over Part I. for the present, and begin with Part II. 



OKTHOGRAPHY — LETTERS, 5 

18. A. union of two vowels in the same syllable, only one of which- 
is sounded, is called a digraph, and sometimes, an improper diph 
thong, as oa in boat ; ou in court, 

19. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound, 
as eau in beauty. 

The Powers of Letters. 

20. In analyzing words into their elementary sounds, it is neces- 
sary to distinguish between the name of a letter and its power. 

21. The name of a letter is that by which it is usually 
called ; as A, be, se, de, etc. 

22. The power of a letter is the effect which *it has, 
either by itself, or combined with other letters, in forming 
a word or syllable. 

23. Each of the vowels has several powers. Several letters have 
the same power ; and certain powers or elements of words are re- 
presented by a combination of two letters. 

24:. The elementary powers or sounds in the English language are 
about forty-three, and are primarily divided into unobstructed 
sounds or Vocals, represented by vowels and diphthongs ; and 
obstructed sounds (Subvocals and Aspirates), represented 
by consonants, single or combined. 

25. Vocals or tonics are unobstructed sounds produced by the 
organs of voice, with the mouth more or less open, and with no 
change, or but slight change, of position in the organs of speech. 

20. Subvocals or subtonics are sounds produced by the organs of 
voice, obstructed or modified by certain changes in the position of the 
organs of speech. 

27. Aspirates or atonies are mere whispering sounds without 
vocality, but which still have an audible effect in the enunciation of 
words. They are all obstructed except h. 

28. The elementary powers of letters can not be exhibited to the 
eye, but must be learned from the living voice. 

20. The name of a vowel is always one of its powers (except w 
and y), and if from the name of a consonant, we take away the vowel 
sound, what remains is generally the power of that consonant. 

SO. A full view of the elementary powers of letters in the forma- 



6 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



tion of words, is exhibited in the following table. In the words an- 
nexed as examples, the letter whose power is indicated is printed in 
Italic. By pronouncing the word distinctly, and then leaving out all 
but the power of the Italic letter, and uttering that alone, we have 
the power of that letter. 

81. Elementary Sounds in the English Language. 

Table I. 



VOCALS. 


SUBVOCALS. 


ASPERATES. 


A. 


ale, able* 


B. 


h&t, orb. 


F. 


fix. 


A. 


art. 


D. 


do, did. 


H. 


Irat. 


A. 


gall. 


a. 


gone, dog. 


K. 


jfeeep, boofe. 


A. 


at. 


J. 


judge. 


P. 


^en, top. 


A. 


ask. 


L. 


lie. 


S. 


sun. 


E. 


me. 


M. 


tl&an. 


T. 


fop, bal. 


E. 


met, egg. 


N. 


tio. 


Th. 


faith. 


I. 


ire. 


NG. 


ring. 


Sh. 


show. 


I. 


in. 


R. 


far. 


Ch. 


chide. 


0. 


old. 


R.f 


rope. 


Wh 


X when. 


0. 


move, ooze. 


Th. 


this. 






0. 


odd. 


V. 


Tan. 






U. 


tiene, use. 


Z. 


sine. 






U. 


up. 


Z. 


axure. 






U. 


full. 










Oi. 


oil. 










Ou. 


thou. 










W. 


tve. 










Y. 


yes. 











The following analysis exhibits the nature of the different sounds : 
1. Classified by the ear ; 2d. By the position of the organs in forming 
them. 



* Some make a in care a distinct element. It is only long a modi- 
fied by the r following. 

f R before a vowel has a hard or trilling sound ; as, rat, rough ; 
after a vowel, a soft and liquid sound ; as, arm, far. 

% Wh is a combined sound, nearly equivalent to h-oo, and is classed 
here only for convenience. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — LETTERS. 



1< There are two general classes, unobstructed and obstructed 

sounds. ♦ 









coo 

r 


in mood. 


a in late. 






'Long, . . 


in go. 


ah, in lather. 








in me. 


aw in fall. 






Medial, . . 


a 


in grass. 


e in her. 




'Simple, . . .- 


Short, . , 


coo 

r 


in book. 
in tin. 


a in fat. 

ti in tub. 


1 « 

*1 cS 






(e 


in met. 


in not. 


The TJnobsl 
Sounds 


Serial, . 


Coalescent, 
Whispered^ 

C Open, . 

( Close, , 


VD in wish. 
h in hat. 
ou in out. 
ie in tube. 


y in yet. 

oi in oil. 

i in fine. 






r Mutes, . 


& 


in pin. 


eh in church. 


VI 


'Explodent, .- 




in time. 


h in king. 



PS 
O 
U2 

T5 




- Sonants, 


id 


in bad, tub 
in do. 


J in joy. 
g in go. 


tructe 
are 




-Hisses, . 




in fan, life, 
in think. 


S in sin. 
sh in show. 


02 

O 




Buzzes, . 


Ith 

l 


in vine. 


x in zone. 


EH 


^Continuant, .- 


Liquids, . 


in the. 
in life. 


xh in azure. 
T in far. 






Trill, . . 


r 


in rich. 








-Nasals, . . 


jm 


in man. 


itg m sing. 



1 n- in no. 

2. The organs chiefly employed in the formation of sounds are 
the lips, tongue, teeth, gums, palate, and throat. It is impossible per- 
fectly to separate the functions of these organs, but an approximate 
reference of the sounds is made in the table subjoined. 

Remark. — The ordinary distribution of long and short vowels in 
English is arbitrary ; for it must be noticed that short i is not the 



8 



EKGLISH GEAMIAE. 



short sound of long i, but rather of long e. The corresponding long 
and short sounds are those made with the organs in the same posi- 
tions, as indicated in Table II. 

Table II. 
Phonetic Classification* 



Medial . 
f Simple. J Short . 

Coalescent < tv 
- Whispered 



S3 

f=S 

o 
U2 

t? 

■s 

CD 

a 

CD 
i — I 

H 



f UNOBSTRUCTED 




I Serial 



(Open 
(Close 



ou oi 

u i 



fExPLOD- (Mutes . 
ent . (Sonants. 



OBSTRUCTED 



Contin- 
uant . 



"Hisses . 

Buzzes . 

Liquids . 

Trill. . 
L Nasals . 



.ptch 

b a j 

. fthssh 

. vthxzh 
I 



h 
9 



r 
r 
. m, n, ng 

32. Certain letters in the English Alphabet have no power of 
their own, but represent the sound of others in the preceding table, 
and may therefore be called Equivalents. Equivalents of vowels 
and diphthongs are numerous. 

83. Of the Subvocals and Aspirates, eight pairs are Correla- 
tives* In sounding the first of any of these pairs, the organs of voice* 



* The Organs of Voice are those parts (called by physiologists 
the larynx and its appendages) which are employed in the produc- 
tion of simple vocal sounds. 

The Organs of Speech are those parts employed to obstruct or 
modify whispering or vocal sounds. These are the tongue, lips, 
teeth, gums, palate, and throat. 



OKTHOGKAPHY — SYLLABLES. 9 

and speech are in the same position as in sounding its fellow, but 
the first, or subvocal, has vocality ; the second, or aspirate, has not. 
34. Equivalents and Correlatives* 

Table III. 



EQUIVALENTS. 


COKKELATIYES. 




Subvocals. 


Aspirates. 


W =u cow, mew. 


V. 


vow. 


F. fame. 


Y :=i tyrant, system. 


GL 


gone. 


K. keep. 


C hard =k cat. 


B. 


bat. 


P. pen. 


Q =k liguor. 


Z. 


zinc. 


S. sin. 


C soft =s cent. 


D. 


do. 


T. top. 


G soft =j gin. 


Th. 


this. 


Th. thick. 


X =ks fix. 


Z. 


azure. 


Sh. show. 




J. 


judge. 


Ch. chide. 



35. The elementary sounds of the human voice, some- 
times simple, but more commonly combined, are formed 
into Syllables and Words. 



Syllables. 

36. A Syllable is represented, in written lan- 
guage, by a letter or combination of letters uttered 
by one impulse of the voice, as farm, farm-ex, 
ea-gle, a-e-ri-al. 

37 '. Every word contains as many syllables as it has distinct vocal 
sounds, as gram-ma-ri-an. 

38. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable* 

39. A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 

40. A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable. 

41. A word of more than three syllables is called a Polysyl- 
lable. 



10 ENGLISH GEAMIAE. 

Division of Words into Syllables. 

42. The division of words into syllables is called 
Syllabication. 

GENERAL RULE. 

43. Place together in distinct syllables, those letters which make 
up the separate parts or divisions of a word, as heard in its correct 
pronunciation. 

44. The only definite rules of much value on this subject are the 
following : — 

45. Rule 1. Two or more consonants forming but one elementary 
sound, are never separated ; such as, ch, tch, th, sh, ng, ph, wh, gh, 
silent, or sounding/, Ik sounding k, etc. ; as, church-es, watch-es, wor- 
thy, fish-es, sing-ing, philoso-phy, sigh-ing, cough-ing, walk-ing. 

46. Rule 2. The terminations, cean, cian, ceous, cious, cial, tion, 
tious, -Hal, geon, gian, geous, sion, are hardly ever divided ; as o-cean, 
gra-elous, na-tion, coura-geous, etc, 

47 '. Rule 3. Compound words are divided into their simple ones ; 
as, rail-road, bee-hive, hope-less, thank-ful, etc. 

48. Rule 4. The terminations of words, when they form a sylla- 
ble, are usually separated from their roots ; as writ-er, teach-es, 
think-ing, cold-er, old-est. 

49. Two separate words combined as one name, are usually sepa- 
rated by a hyphen ; as, glass-house, bee-hive. 

To this rule, according to modern usage, there are some exceptions. 

50. In writing, a word of more than one syllable may be divided 
at the end of a line, but a monosyllable or a syllable, never. 



Spelling. 

51. Spelling is the art of expressing a word by 
its proper letters. 

52. The Orthography of the English language is so anomalous, 
and in many cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can be acquired 
only by practice, and the use of the spelling-book or dictionary. The 
following rules are of a general character, though even to these there 
may be a few exceptions : — 



ORTHOGRAPHY — SPELLING. 11 

General Mules for Spelling Words. 

RULE I. 

53. Monosyllables ending with f, I, or s 9 preceded by 
a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, 
pass. 

54b. Exceptions. — Of, if, as, is, has, was, Ms, gas, yes, this, us, thus, 
pus. 

RULE II. 

55. Words ending with any consonant except f 9 I, or 
s, do not double the final letter; as, sit, not, up, put, 
that, in. ^ 

56. Exceptions. — Add, bunn, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd* 
purr. 

RULE III. 

57. — 1. Words in ending in y preceded by a consonant, 
change y into i before an additional letter or syllable ; as, 
spy, spies ; happy, happier, happiest ; carry, carrier, car- 
ried ; fancy, fanciful. 

58. Exception 1. But y is not changed before ing ; as, deny, 
denying. 

59. — 2. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain 
the y unchanged ; as, boy, boys, boyish, boyhood. 

Exception 3. But lay, pay, say, make laid, paid, said ; and day 
makes daily. 

RULE IV. 

60. Monosyllables and words accented on the last sylla- 
ble, ending with a single consonant preceded by a single 
vowel, double that consonant before an additional syllable 
beginning with a vowel ; as, rob, robber ; admit, admittance, 
admitted. - 

Exception. — But oc and h are never doubled. 

61. But when a diphthong or a double vowej precedes, 
or the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant is 



12 EIGLISH GEAIllR. 

not doubled ; as boil, boiling, boiler ; wool, woolen ; fool, 
foolish ; visit, visited. 

62 . Exceptions. — In about fifty words ending in I with a vowel 
"before it, and not accented on the last syllable, many writers, con- 
trary to analogy and without necessity, double the I improperly 
before an additional syllable. These are such words as travel, trav- 
eller, travelling, travelled* f * 

63. So also s and p are generally, though improperly, doubled in 
bias, worship, and kidnap; as Massing, worshipper, kidnapping, 
Webster, and many writers following him, in these words conform to 
the general rule, 

EULE V. 

64. Silent e is preserved before the terminations, merit 9 
lesSp ly, &vAful; as, -paleness, peaceful, abatement, etc. 

65. Exceptions. Duly, truly, awful, and, generally, judgment, ac- 
knowledgment, lodgment, abridgment, are excepted. Argument, 
from the Latin argurnentum, is not an exception. 

RULE VI. 

66. Silent e is omitted before terminations beginning 
with a vowel ; as, slave, slavish ; cure, curable ; sense, sen- 
sible ; lodge, lodging ; love, lovest. 

67* Blame, move, reprove, sale, and their compounds, sometimes, 
though improperly, retain e before able ; as, blameable, etc. 

68. But words ending in ge and ce retain e before able, in order 
to preserve the soft sound of g and c ; as, changeable, peaceable^ etc, 
For the same reason we have singeing and swingeing : dye has dyeing, 
to distinguish it from dying. So also words ending with c hard in- 
sert ~k before a syllable beginning with e or i to preserve the hard 
sound ; as, frolic, frolicked, frolicking. 



* The words referred to are the following : Apparel, bevel, bowel, 
cancel, carol, cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, 
duel, embowel, enamel, empanel, equal, gambol, gravel, grovel, 
handsel, hatchel, imperil, jewel, kennel, label, level, libel, marshal, 
marvel, model, panel, parcel, pencil, peril, pistol, pommel, quarrel, 
ravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, tassel, trammel, travel, 
tunnel, unravel. 



ORTHOGRAPHY — SPELLING. 13 

69. The letters ie at the end of a word, are changed into y before 
ing ; as, die, dying ; lie, lying, 

RULE VII. 

70. Words ending with double I drop one I before the 
terminations less and ly 9 to prevent trebling ; as, skill- 
skilless ; full, fully j and some writers before ness and ful ; 
as, fulness, skilful. 

71. But words ending in any other double letter pre- 
serve the letter double before less, ly 9 ness, and full ; 
as, harmlessly, stiffly, gruff ness, etc. 

RULE VIII. 

72. Simple words ending in double l 9 when joined to 
other words, generally drop one I when they lose the ac- 
cent ; as, awful, hopeful, handful, careful, already. 

73. But when they are under the accent, the double I 
should be retained; as, fulfill, willful, recall, foretell. But, 
until, welcome, alivays, also, withal, therewithal, wherewithal, 
have single l 

74z. In words under this rule, however, usage is far from uniform • 
fulfil and fulfill ; willful and wilful ; recal and recall ; foretel and 
foretell, and similar varieties are common. 

75. Other compounded words are generally spelled in the same 
manner as the simple words of which they are formed ; as, glass-house, 
millwright, thereby. 

76. Many words in English admit of two or more different modes 
of spelling ; as, connection, connexion ; enquire, inquire ; chemistry, 
chymistry ; etc. In such cases, prevailing usage and analogy must 
"be our guides. 

The orthography of primitive words of Saxon origin— the root 
words of our language— can be learned only from the spelling-book or 
dictionary ; yet even in regard to them, there are certain modes of 
classification by which the intelligent teacher will much facilitate 
their mastery by the pupil. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Capital Letters. 

77. The letters commonly used in printing are distin- 
guished and represented as follows : — 
3 (1.) CAPITAL LETTEKS. 

(2.) Small Capitals. 

(3.) Italic letters. 

(4.) Lowercase (small letters). 

Formerly, every noun began with a capital letter, 
both in writing and in printing ; and in the German lan- 
guage this usage is still retained : but at present, only the 
following words begin with capital letters :— 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or 
any other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; also, after a mark of 
interrogation or exclamation, when the sentence before, 
and the one after it, are independent of each other. 

But if several interrogatory or exclamatory sentences are so con- 
nected, that the latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, 
except the first, may begin with a small letter " How doth the city 
sit solitary that was full of people ! how are her habitations become as 
desolate ! how is she become as a widow ! 

3. Proper names, titles of office or honor; as, George 
Washington, General Jackson, Judge Story, Sir Walter Scott, 
America, the Ohio, Sheldon & Co., New York. 

Also, when the title is used without the proper name, it is custom- 
ary to use the capital ; as, " O King, live forever !" But when such 
words are used as common nouns, or adjectives, they commence with 
small letters ; as, " The king, and the lords, and the people. " 

Name3 of the months, and of the days of the week, etc., begin with 
capitals. East, West, South, etc., when used to denote a district of 
country, or its people, commence with capitals ; as, " The West is rap- 
idly increasing in population ;" but when used to indicate direc- 
tion, they commence with a small letter ; as, " Buffalo is west from 
Albany." 



ORTHOGRAPHY — CAPITALS. 15 

The words river, lake, bay, etc., used as common nouns, commence 
with small letters ; as, " There are many beautiful lakes and navigable 
rivers," etc., but when joined with a proper name, designating an in- 
dividual, a capital is generally used ; as, " The Ohio River, Great Salt 
Lake," etc. 

4. The pronoun I 9 and the interjection O, are written 
in capitals. 

5. The first word of every line of poetry ; as — 

" Hark ! how the sacred calm that breathes around 
Bids every fierce, tumultuous passion cease ; 
In still, small accents whispering from the ground 
A grateful earnest of eternal peace." 

6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most High, 
he Almighty, the Supreme Being, etc.; also, the personal 
pronoun thou and he, when standing for his name ; as, 
" Praise Him, all ye people !" But when such words are 
used in a general sense, they commence with small letters, 
as, " The providence of God is over lords and peasants." 
" The gods of the heathen bow before our God." 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; 
as, Grecian, Roman, English, etc. 

8. The first word of a direct quotation (1123), when the 
quotation would form a complete sentence by itself; as, 
" Always remember this ancient maxim : ' Know thyself.' " 

When a quotation is not introduced in the direct form (1124), but 
follows a comma, the first word must not begin with a capital ; as, 
" Solomon observes that 'pride goeth before destruction.' " 

7. Common nouns, when personified ; as, " Come, gentle 
Spring:' (1046, 1). 

10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of 
books; as, "Euclid's Elements of Geometry ;" " Goldsmith's 
Deserted Village." 

11. Historical eras, events, extraordinary physical phe- 
nomena, written instruments, and generally, all words 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

which are used in a specialized sense ; as, the Iron Age, 
Magna Charta, the Polar Sea, Aurora Borealis, the Day of 
Judgment, etc. 

78. Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, 
when they are remarkably emphatic, or the principal subject of the 
composition. 

In cases where there is any doubt as to the proper usage, employ a 
small letter. 



Accent. 

In the pronnnciation of words of more than one syllable. 
accent is the superior force of voice upon some par- 
ticular syllable, to distinguish it from the others ; as, ten'- 
der, suppress', tem'perance, indus'trious. 

The place of the accent sometimes serves to distinguish words of 
the same orthography , but of different signification ; as, con* duct 
(behavior), conduct', (to lead) ; ob'ject (an end, purpose), object', (to 
oppose) ; gal'lant (brave), gallant' (a gay or fashionable man). 

Derivative words (84) generally take the accent 
upon the primitive part or root / as, boy, boy 'ish. But 
when the primitive words consist of several syllables, a 
pre-ftoo or suffix has often the effect of changing the 
accent; as, chastise', chas'tisement. 

Some compounds take two accents; but many permanent 
compounds have only one ; as, mankind', gen'tlemen. 

Many polly syllables have two accents, called 
primary and secondary; as, dis"-com-pose', cir"-cum-spec'- 
tion, sig"-ni-fi-ca'-tion. 

Monosyllables, as separate words, have no distinction of 
accent ; but, in composition, a periodic stress, analogous to accent, 
designates particular words. This is more noticeable in poetry, but is 
also recognized in prose ; as, " And it came' to pass'." This distinc- 
tion is called rhythm (1060). 



ETYMOLOGY — WORDS. 17 

PART II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 



79. Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their deri- 
vations. 



WOBDS. 

80. A Word is an articulate sound used "by com^ 
mon consent as the sign of an idea. 

81. A few words consist of vocal or vowel sounds only; 
as, I, ah, awe, oh, owe, eye, etc. 

82.-1. Words in respect of their Formation, are 
either Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Com- 
pound. 

83. A Primitive word is one that is not derived from 
any other word in the language ; as, hoy, just, father. 

84. A Derivative word is one that is derived from 
some other word ; as, boyish, justice, fatherly. 

Derivatives are usually formed either by prefixing or affixing sylla- 
bles to simple words. 

85. A Simple word is one that is not combined with 
any other word ; as, man, house, city. 

86. A Compound word is one that is made up of 
two or more simple words ; as, manhood, horseman. 

87.-2. Words, in respect of Form, are either in- 
flected or uninfected. 

88. An Inflected word is one which undergoes cer- 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tain changes of form or termination, to express the differ- 
ent relations of gender, number, person, case ; degree ; 
voice, mood, tense; usually termed in Grammar Acci- 
dents ; as, man, men ; wise, wiser ; love, loves, loved, etc. 

89. In the changes which they undergo, nouns and pronouns are 
sometimes said to be declined, verbs, to be conjugated, adjec- 
tives and adverbs, compared (140, 209, 473, 536.) 

90. An uninfected word is one which undergoes no 
change of form ; as, and, beside, some, perhaps. 

91. 3. In respect of signification and use, 
words are divided into different classes, called Parts 
of Speech. 

92. The principle, according to which words are classi- 
fied is their use, or the part they perform in the expres- 
sion of thought. Words which are names of objects are 
classed as nouns ; those which qualify nouns are adjec- 
tives ; those which attribute an action or state to some 
subject are verbs, etc. Hence, when the same word is 
used for different purposes — at one time as a name, at an- 
other to qualify a noun, and at another to express an 
action or state — it should, in parsing, be assigned to that 
class of words, the office of which it performs for the time ; 
thus, " Before honor [noun] is humility." " Honor [verb] 
thy father and thy mother." 



Structure of Words. 

A simple word conveying a single notion, or 

idea, and of whose origin we can give no account, is 
called a root. 

Derivations are formed from these, and also from 
foreign roots. 

1. By changing the vowel, or modifying the 
consonants in the root Thus, from shake we have 



ORTHOGRAPHY — WORDS, 



19 



sliochj from strong, strength; from the Latin signum, or 
Trench signe, we have sign. 

2. By prefixes and suffixes, added to the root, as, 
misguide, tmable, ivithdi&w, strengthen, shockm^, reader, 
etc. 

Latin roots are rarely used in English in their primitive form. 
Thus, in permit, submit, the root is mit ; and in deport, porter, it is 
port, but these are in English inseparable, retaining, however, their 
original signification, and imparting it to the derivative ; as (Latin), 
port to carry, er (suffix) one who ; porter, a carrier. 

A prefix is a letter or syllable before the root of a 
derivative. 
A suffix is a letter or syllable after the root. 

The number of prefixes and suffixes is not more two hundred, and 
their usual signification may be readily learned. It is estimated that 
there are not above ten thousand roots. The mastery, therefore, of 
these elements will put the learner in possession of more than one 
hundred thousand words, given in our standard dictionaries ; whilst 
the exercise of verbal analysis is invaluable, in leading to nice dis- 
crimination in shades of meaning. 

Prefixes. 

The prefixes are, for the most part, of Saxon, 
Latin, or Greek origin. The most common are as 
follows : — 



Prefixes of Saxon Origin. 



A 


signifying in, on at ; 


as, 


abed, aboard. 


Be 


<( 


adding intensity ; 


as, 


bespeak. 


For 


(t 


the contrary ; 


as, 


forbear, forget. 


Fore 


€( 


before ; 


as, 


foretell, forewarn. 


Mid 




middle ; 


as, 


midway. 


Mis 


(( 


failure ; 


as, 


mistake. 


N{ne) 


(I 


not; 


as, 


never. 


Over 


(t 


above ; 


as, 


overlay. 


Out 




excelling ; 


as, 


outrun. 


Tin 




not ; 


as, 


unkind, unjust. 


To 




this; 


as, 


to-day, to-morrow. 



20 



ENGLISH GRAM MAE. 



JVith signifying against ; as, withhold, withstand. 

Under " beneath ; as, underlay, undervalue. 

Up " upwards ; as, uplift, upstart. 







latin Prefixes. 




A, ab, abs 


a 


from ; 


as, 


avert, abstract. 


Ad* 


a 


to; 


as, 


admit, adhere. 


Ante\ 


tt 


before ; 


as, 


antecedent, anticipate. 


JBene 


a 


well; 


as, 


benevolent. 


JE>is (pi) 


n 


two, twice ; 


as, 


biped, bisect. 


Circum 


n 


around ; 


as, 


circumference. 


Con\ 


tt 


with, together ; 


as, 


connect, consent. 


Contra 


tt 


against ; 


as, 


contradict. 


De 


u 


down ; 


as, 


descend, degrade. 


Dis (di) 


a 


apart ; 


as, 


disperse, diverge. 


E, ex, ef 


a 


out (from) ; 


as, 


eject, expel, effect. 


JSqtii 


tt 


equally ; 


as, 


equileral. 


Extra 


tt 


beyond ; 


as, 


extraordinary 


Ira (with Vb)" 


in or into ; 


as, 


include. 


In(" adjec] 


" 


not ; 


as, 


indecent. 


Inter 


a 


between ; 


as, 


intersperse. 


Intro 


tt 


within ; 


as, 


introduce. 


Won 


tt 


not ; 


as, 


nonsense. 


Ob% 


tt 


against or in way 


of; as, 


obstruct, oppose. 


Per 


tt 


through ; 


as, 


persecute. 


Post 


tt 


after ; 


as, 


postpone. 


Pre (prce) 


a 


before ; 


as, 


prejudice. 


Preter 


tt 


beside, past ; 


as, 


pretermit. 


Pro 


tt 


forth ; 


as, 


propel. 


Me 


tt 


back ; \ 


as, 


remit. 



* Ad sometimes changes d for the sake of euphony, and take 
the forms, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at ; as, accede, affects, 
aggressor, allude, a?inex, append, arrest, assent, attend. 

f Anti semetimes, but to be distinguished from the Greek anti, 
against. 

% Con, for euphony, takes the forms, co, com, col ; as, cohere, 
compel, collect. 

§ For euphony, oc, of, op; as, occur, offend, opposite. 



OETHOGRAPH Y — 


PREFIXES. 21 


Metro " 


backward ; 


as, 


retrograde. 


Se 


apart ; 




as, 


seduce. 


Suh* 


under 


; 


as, 


subject. 


Sabter " 


underneath ; 


as, 


subterfuge. 


Super " 


over ; 




as, 


superfluous. 


Sur 


over; 




as, 


surcharge. 


Trans " 


across 


■> 


as, 


transport. 


Ultra 


beyond ; 


as, 


ultramarine. 




Greek JPrefi 


xes. 




A or an (d, av) signifying 


not; 


as, 


anarchy. 


Amphi (afxfyt) 


(t 


both ; 


as, 


amphibious. 


Ana (ava) 


a 


up; 


as, 


anagram. 


Anti (av™) 


n 


against ; 


as, 


antichrist. 


Apo (and) 


tt 


from; 


as, 


apostle. 


Arch {apxog) 


tt 


chief; 


as, 


archbishop. 


AiltO (avrog) 


tt 


self; 


as, 


autobiography. 


Cata (Kara) 


tt 


down ; 


as, 


catastrophe. 


Dla (dia) 


tt 


through ; 


as, 


diameter. 


En (ev) 


« 


in; 


as, 


encourage. 


Epi (em) 


it 


upon ; 


as, 


epigram. 


Ex (£f) 


it 


out of ; 


as, 


exodus. 


Eu (ev) 


tt 


well; 


as, 


euphony. 


Hemi (vfii) 


tt 


half; 


as, 


hemisphere. 


Metero (erepog) 


tt 


different ; 


as, 


heterogeneous. 


Hyper (vnep) 


tt 


over; 


as, 


hypercritical. 


Hypo (vtto) 


tt 


under ; 


as, 


hypothesis. 


Meta (jiera) 


tt 


change ; 


as, 


metamorphose. 


Para (napa) 


tt 


beside ; 


as, 


paradox. 


Peri (irepi) 


tt 


around ; 


as, 


perimeter. 


Syn\ (aw) 


tt 


with ; 


as, 


synthesis. 


These prefixes 


have other meanings in composition ; the 


particular sense can be determined only by use. 


Many derivations, and especially those of foreign roots, are used 



* Euphonic forms, sue, snf, sur, as succor, suffer, surreptitious, 
f This takes, also, for euphony, the form, sym, syl ; as sympathy, 
s^logisrn. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in a somewhat tropical, or conventional sense, but their mean- 
ing always bears a relation to the original root. 

Some derivatives have many special meanings, according 
to the subject to which they refer, and their relation to other words 
in composition. 

It is recommended that at stated times the pupil be required to 
prepare lists of words under each of these prefixes, and that the 
teacher show how such as are used in a modified sense have lost 
their literal meaning. 

For an additional exercise, some native or foreign root may be 
given, which will combine with each of several prefixes, — the pupils 
to form a list, and write out their meanings. 

Suffixes. 

A suffix is a letter or syllable, placed after a 
root, or primitive, to modify its signification. 

The suffixes are so numerous, and of such varied form and mean- 
ing, that they are more appropriately presented in separate works on 
the " Analysis of Words." It has been thought desirable, however, 
to present what may be regarded as their grammatical fea- 
tures in the structure of the different Parts of Speech (98), and 
the discussion has, therefore, been removed to Appendix I., which 
see. 



PARSING 



93. Parsing is the art of resolving a sentence 
into its elements or parts of speech (574, 575.) 

94. Parsing is distinguished into etymological and 
syntactical. 

95. A word is parsed etymologically by stating 
the class of words to which it belongs, with its accidents 
or grammatical properties. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUHS, 23 

96. A word is parsed Syntactically by stating, in 
addition, the relation in which it stands to other words, 
and the rules according to which they are combined in 
phrases and sentences. 

97. These two, though related, are perfectly distinct; and in the 
. early part of the student's course, nothing should be anticipated 

which he can be supposed to know only at a more advanced stage. 
Let the student learn one thing at a time, each thing thoroughly in 
its proper order, and continue to combine things learned, as far as it 
can be done without anticipating what is future. In this way the pro- 
cess wiU be simple and easy ; every step will be taken in the light, 
and when completed, the result will be satisfactory. Besides, the 
student must be able to parse etymologically with great ease and 
promptness, before he can with any advantage begin the study of 
syntax, For this purpose the class should be properly drilled on the 
exercises furnished at every step in the following pages. 



PARTS OP SPEECH. 

98. The Parts of Speech in English are nine, 
viz. : Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Article, Adjective, 
Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, and Conjunction. 

99. Of these, only the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb, 
and some Adjectives and Adverbs, are inflected. 



NOUNS. - 

100. A Noun is the name of any person, place, 
or thing, when used in connection with other words ; 
as, John, London, book. Hence, 

The names of persons, places, or things, are Nouns. 

101. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Com- 
mon. 

102. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an 
individual only ; as, John, London, America, the 
Ohio. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

108. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
things of the same sort; as, man, chair, table, boolt a 

104. Kemarks. — Proper nouns are used to distinguish 
individuals of the same class from one another. Common 
nouns distinguish sorts or classes, and are equally applica- 
ble to all things of the same class. Thus, the common 
noun, boy, is equally applicable to all objects of that class; 
but the proper nouns, John, James, Bobert, etc., are appli- 
cable only to particular individuals of a class. 

Observations on Nouns. 

10 S. When a proper noun is used to denote a whole 
class, it is usually reckoned common, and generally has an 
article before it. In such cases the noun becomes the type 
of a class, and forms a kind of transition between the 
proper and the common noun ; as, " The twelve Caesar s^ 
"He is the Cicero of his age," "A Daniel come to judg- 
ment." A Campbell, i. e. one of the Campbells. 

100. Common nouns become proper when personified 
(1046, 1), and also when used as proper names ; as, Hail, 
Liberty! The Park. 

107. Under common nouns are usually ranked — 

1. Class names, which can be used to designate any sin- 

gle individual of the class. 

2. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify 

many in the singular number ; as, army, people. 

3. Names of materials. 

4. Naw.es of measures, etc. 

5. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities. An abstract 

noun is the name of an attribute which the mind 
conceives apart, or abstracted from, its object ; as, 
whiteness, sleep, tuisdom, etc. 
The names of actions, as reading, writing, etc., are some- 
times called verhal nouns. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 



25 



Class nouns, derived from other nouns, and denoting a 
small one of the kind ; as, stream, streamlet ; hill, hillock ; 
are also called diminutive nouns* 



Table of Nouns. 



o 

8=25 



.Proper. . \ 



2. Common , 



CI. Class names 



Particular names as Wasliington. 

2. In transition state .... a Sampson. 
(Sensible . . . Book. 
< Rational. . . Scholar. 

2. Collective names . . . . . Army. 

3. Names of materials .... Iron. 

4. Names of measures, etc. . . Foot, etc. 
r 1 . Names of qualities Goodness. 

^5. Abstract «<2. Names of actions Flight. 
' 3. Names of states . Sleep. 

108. To the class of nouns belongs everything, whether word, 
letter, mark, or character, of which we can think, speak, or write, re- 
garded merely as an object of thought, even when, as sometimes hap- 
pens, we do not give it a name. Thus when we say, " Good " is an 
adjective, a is a vowel, b is a consonant, A is a capital, 4 is an even* 
number, £ is a fraction, ? is a mark of interrogation, + is the sign of 
addition, — of subtraction, = of equality— -Goody a, b, A, 4, \, ?, +, 
— , =', are all to be regarded as nouns. 

109. Remark. — A noun is also called a substantive. But this 
term for convenience is here used in a more comprehensive sense, to 
mean a noun 9 a personal pronoun, or a phrase, or sen- 
tence used as a noun. Thus in such a rule as this, "An adjective 
qualifies the substantive," etc., the word substantive may mean 
either a noun, pronoun, substantive phrase, or substantive sentence. 



EXERCISES.* 
1. In the following list, distinguish proper nouns from com- 
mon, and give a reason for the distinction : — 



* The exercises furnished here, and throughout this work, are in- 
tended merely as a specimen of the way in which the leading truths 
and facts in Grammar may be wrought into the minds of pupils, by 
means of exercises properly devised. It is not, however, expected or 

2 



26 ENGLISH GSAMMAE. 

Albany, city, tree, nation, France, Philip, dog, horse, 
house, garden, Dublin, Edinburgh, London, riyer, Hudson, 
Ohio, Thames, countries, America, England, Ireland, Spain, 
sun, moon, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, man, wo- 
man, boy, girl, John, James, Mary, Susan, mountain, stream, 
valley. 

2. In the following sentences, point out the nouns. Say why 
they are nouns ; tell whether they are proper or common, and why. 
Thus : " Table" a noun, because the name of a thing ; common, be- 
cause applied to all things of the same sort. 

[In subsequent exercises, the pupil may designate more particu- 
larly the sub-classes to which the nouns belong :-— ] 

The table and chairs in this room belong to John ; the 
book-case, writing-desk, and books, to his brother. — Time 
and tide wait for no man. — The largest city in Europe is 
London; in America, New York. — The northern states 
produce wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn, and potatoes ; while 
cotton, tobacco, rice, and sugar, are the products of the 
south. 

3. Write down ten nouns, or names of persons or things, and say 
something respecting each, so as to make a sentence ; thus : — 

Summer. — Summer is the warmest season of the year. 

4. Tell what words in the sentences so made are nouns, and why ; 
which are proper, or common, and why. 

Accidents of tJie Noun, 

110. The accidents of nouns are Person, Gen- 
der, Number, and Case. 



desired that the teacher should limit himself to these. Every active 
and ingenious teacher will devise such new and various methods of 
exercising his pupils as their age, capacity, and circumstances, and 
his own judgment and experience may suggest, as best calculated to 
draw out their powers, and cultivate in them a habit of thinking and 
reasoning for themselves. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — PEESON. 27 

Note. — These accidents belong also to personal and rela- 
tive pronouns (239). 



Person. 

111. Person, in Grammar, is the distinction of 
nouns to denote tlie speaker, the person or thing 
spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. (120). 
Hence, 

112. There are three persons, called First, Second, 
and Third. 

113. A noun is in the first person, when it denotes 
the speaker ; as, " I, Paul, have written it." 

1 14. A noun is in the second person, when it denotes 
the person or thing addressed; as, "Thou, God, seest 
me." — " Hail, Liberty !" 

115. A noun is in the third person, when it denotes 
the person or thing spoken of; as, " Washington was 
brave." — " Truth is mighty." 

116. Remahk. — The third person is used sometimes for the first; 
as Thy servant became surety for the lad to my father." Gen. xliv. 
32. Sometimes, particularly in the language of supplication, it is 
used for the second ; as, " O let not the Lord be angry." Gen. xviii. 
30. "Will the Lord bless us!" 

Observations on Person. 

117. The first and the second person can belong only to nouns 
denoting persons, or things personified; because persons only can 
speak or be spoken to. The third person may belong to all nouns, 
because every object, whether person or thing, may be spoken of. 

118. A noun can be the subject of a verb (600), only in the third 
person. A noun in the first or second person is never used as the 
subject of a verb, but only in apposition (668) with the first or second 
personal pronoun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis ; and 
sometimes in the second person, without a pronoun, as the object 
addressed. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

119. A noun in the predicate (629), is generally, though not 
always, in the third person, even when the subject is in the first or 
second ; as, " I am Alpha" etc., " who is." So with the pronouns I 
and thou ; as, " I am he" " Thou art the man" 

120. Eemark. — Person makes no change either in the meaning 
or form of a noun, but simply denotes the manner in which it is used, 
as above stated. Moreover, as the name of the speaker, or of the 
person spoken to, is seldom expressed (the pronouns I and thou, we 
and you, being used in their stead), it seems to be a useless waste of 
time, in parsing, to mention the person of a noun, unless it be in the 
first or second person, which will not happen more than once in a 
thousand times. Much time therefore will be saved, and no loss sus- 
tained, if it be considered as taken for granted, without stating it, that 
a noun is in the third person, unless it be otherwise mentioned. 



G-ender. 

121. Gender is the distinction of nouns with 
regard to sex. Appendix I. 

122. There are three genders, Masculine, Fem- 
inine, and Neuter. 

12S. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, 
manyhoy. 

124. Nouns denoting females are Feminine; as, 
woman, girl. 

125. Nouns denoting neither males nor females, 
i. e., things without sex, are Neuter; as, 7wuse, 
hook, tree. 

126. Nouns which denote either males or females, such 
as parent, neighbor, friend, etc., are sometimes, for the sake 
of convenience, said to be of the Common Gender, 
i. e., either masculine or feminine. 

127. There are three ways of distinguishing the sexes. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUKS — G E N D E K < 



29 



1. By Different Words; as, 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Horse 


mare 


Beau 


belle 


Husband 


wife 


Boy 


girl 


King 


queen 


Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 


Buck 


doe 


Man 


woman 


Bull 


cow 


Master 


mistress 


Drake 


duck 


Nephew 


niece 


Earl 


countess 


Earn, buck 


ewe 


Father 


mother 


Son 


daughter 


Friar 


nun 


Stag 


hind 


Gander 


goose 


Uncle 


aunt 


Hart 


roe 


Wizard 


witch 


2. JBy a Difference of Termination; as, 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Actor 


actress 


Author 


authoress 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Baron 


baroness 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Count 


countess 


Peer 


peeress 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Poet 


poetess 


Duke 


duchess 


Priest 


priestess 


Elector 


electress 


Prince 


princess 


Emperor 


empress 


Prior 


prioress 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Executor 


executrix 


Protector 


protectress 


Governor 


governess 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Heir 


leiress 


Songster 


songstress 


Hero 


lieroine 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Hunter 


liuntress 


Sultan 


( sultana, or 
\ sultaness 


Host 


lostess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Tiger 


tigress 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Traitor 


traitress 


Lion 


lioness 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Votary 


votaress 


Patron 


patroness 


Widower 


widow 



30 





ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 


3. By Prefixing a Distinguishing Word; as 9 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Sparrow. 


A cock sparrow. 


A hen sparrow. 


Goat. 


A Tie goat. 


A she goat. 


Servant. 


A man servant. 


A maid servant. 


Child. 


A male child. 


& female child. 


Descendants. 


Male descendants. 


Female descendants. 



Observations on Gender. 

128. Many masculine nouns have no corresponding 
feminine ; as, laker, brewer, etc. : and some feminine nouns 
have no corresponding masculine; as, laundress, seam- 
stress, etc. 

129. Some nouns naturally neuter, are often, by a figure 
of speech (1046, 1), converted into the masculine or femi- 
nine ; as, when we say of the sun, " He is setting f of the 
moon, " She is eclipsed ;" or of a ship, " She sails." 

130. Eemabk. — This inferior species of personification, peculiar 
to the English language, is often used with great beauty to impart 
animation and liveliness to the style, without rendering it inflated or 
passionate. No certain rule, however, can be given as to the gender 
assumed, except that nouns denoting objects distinguished for 
strength or boldness, are usually regarded as masculine, while, on 
the other hand, those denoting objects noted for softness, beauty, and 
gracefulness, are considered feminine. 

131. In speaking of animals whose sex is not known to us, or 
not regarded, we assign the masculine gender to nouns denoting those 
distinguished for boldness, fidelity, generosity, size, strength, etc., as 
the dog, the horse, the elephant. Thus we say, " the dog is remarka- 
bly various in Ms species." On the other hand, we assign the femi- 
nine gender to animals characterized by weakness and timidity ; as 
the hare, the cat, etc. ; thus, " The cat, as she beholds the light, draws 
the ball of her eye small and long." 

132. In speaking of animals, particularly those of inferior size, 
we frequently consider t:iem without sex, and use the neuter pronoun. 
Thus, of an infant, we say, " It is a lovely creature ;" of a cat, " It is 
cruel to its enemy. 

133* When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms, 



ETYMOLOGY — KOUNS — GENDER. 31 

as, shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has sometimes also a 
general meaning, expressing both male and female, and is always to 
be used when the office, occupation, profession, etc., and not the sex 
of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed. The feminine term is 
used only when the discrimination of sex is necessary. Thus, when 
it is said, " the Poets of this country are distinguished for correctness 
of taste," the term " Poets" clearly includes both male and female 
writers of poetry. But, " the best Poetess of the age," would be said 
when speaking only of females. 

134. Collective nouns, when the reference is to the ag- 
gregate as one whole, or when they are in the plural num- 
ber, are considered as neuter; as, "The army destroyed 
everything in its course ;" but when the reference is to the 
objects composing the collection as individuals, they take 
the gender representing the sex of the individuals re- 
ferred to. 

EXERCISES. 

1. What is the feminine of— Father, prince, king, master, 
actor, emperor, bridegroom, stag, buck, hart, nephew, friar, 
priest, heir, hero, Jew, host, hunter, sultan, executor, horse, 
lord, husband, brother, son, bull, he-goat, etc. ? 

2. What is the masculine of — Lady, woman, girl, niece, 
nun, aunt, belle, duchess, abbess, empress, heroine, wife, 
sister, mother, hind, roe, mare, hen-sparrow, shepherdess, 
daughter, ewe, goose, queen, songstress, widow, etc. ? 

3. Tell of ichat gender the following nouns are, and why. 

Man, horse, tree, field, father, house, mother, queen, 
count, lady, king, prince, castle, tower, river, stone, hen, 
goose, seamstress, mountain, cloud, air, sky, hand, foot, 
head, body, limb, lion, tiger, mayor, countess; — friend, 
neighbor, parent, teacher, assistant, guide; — sun (129), 
moon, earth, ship ; — cat (132), mouse, fly, bird, elephant, 
hare. 

4. Take any of the above words, and say something respecting the 
person or thing which it denotes, so as to make a sentence ; thns, 
"My father is at home." 



32 ENGLISH GEAIIAE, 



Nnmber. 

135. Number is that property of a noun Iby 
which, it expresses one, or more than one. 

136. Nouns have two numlbers, the Singular and 
the Plural. The singular denotes one ; as, book, 
tree : the plural, more than one ; as, books, trees. 

GENERAL RULE. 

137. The plural is commonly formed by adding 
s to the singular ; as, booTc, booTcs. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

138. Eule 1.— Nouns in s 9 sh, eh soft, & 9 x, or o, 
form the plural by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; brush, 

brushes; match, matches; topaz, topazes ; fox, foxes ; hero, 
heroes. 

13 9. Exceptions. — Nouns in eo, io 9 and yo 9 have s only, as, 
cameo, cameos ; folio, folios ; embryo, embryos. So also, canto, cantos. 
Junto, tyro, grotto, portico, solo, halo, quarto, formerly had s only 
in the plural ; but now more commonly es under the Kule ; as, junto, 
juntoes, etc. Nouns in eh sounding 7c, add s only ; as, monarch, 
monarchs. See also 144. 

14:0. Whenever s or es will not coalesce with the final syllable, 
it adds a syllable to the word ; as, age, pi. ages ; box, boxes. But 
where s or es will coalesce, it does not add a syllable ; as, book, books; 
cargo, cargoes. The s will make an additional syllable only after e 
final, preceded by g or an s-sound ; as, cage, cages ; race, races ; rose, 
roses. Es will coalesce, and so not add a syllable, only after o; as, 
echo, echoes. 

141. Kule 2. — Nouns in y after a consonant, change 
y into ies in the plural ; as, lady, ladies. But 

Nouns in y after a vowel, and all proper nouns in y, fol- 
low the general rule (137); as, day, days; the Fompeys, 
the Tullys, etc. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUKS — NUMBER. 33 

142. Eule 3. — Nouns in / or fe 9 change / or fe into 
ves in the plural; as, loaf, loaves; life, lives. 

143 • Exceptions. — Dwarf, scarf, reef; brief, chief, grief; kerchief, 
handkerchief, mischief; gulf, turf, surf; safe, fife, strife; proof, hoof, 
reproof, follow the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural 
in s ; as muff, muffs ; except staff, plural, staves ; but its compounds 
are regular; as, flagstaff, flag staffs ; wharf has either wharfs or 
wharves. 

EXEKCISES. 

1. Give the plural of the following nouns, and the rule for forming 
it ; thus, Fox, plural, foxes. Rule — Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, 
form the plural by adding es. Or, more briefly ; Nouns in x form the 
plural by adding es. 

Fox, book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, 
coach, inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, 
cargo, wife, story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, 
street, potato, peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, 
hope, flower, city, difficulty, distress, wolf. 

Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, enemy, 
army, vale, ant, valley, hill, sea, key, toy, monarch, tyro, 
grotto, nuncio, punctilio, embryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, 
staff, muff, cliff, whiff, cuff, ruff, reef, safe, wharf, fief. 

2. Of what number is — Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, 
planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, glass, state, foxes, houses, 
prints, spoon, bears, lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies, 
hill, river, scenes, stars, berries, peach, porch, glass, pitcher, 
valleys, mountain, cameos ? 

3. Take six of the above words, and say something respecting each ; 
first in the singular, and then in the plural. 

Nouns Irregular in the Plural. 

144. Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their 
plural 5 such as — 



34 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Man 


men 


Woman 


women 


Child 


children 


Foot 


feet 


Ox 


oxen 



Singular. Plural. 

Tooth teeth 

Goose geese 

Mouse mice 

Louse lice 

Cow formerly kine 
but now regular, cows 



14:5. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular 

form of the plural, but with different significations ; as — 

Singular Plural. 

Brother (one of the same family) brothers 

Brother (one of the same society) brethren 

Die (a stamp for coining) dies 

Die (a small cube for gaming) dice 

Genius (a man of genius) geniuses 

Genius (a kind of spirit) genii 

Index (a table of reference) indexes 

Index (a sign in algebra) indices 

Pea (as a distinct seed) peas 

Pea (as a species of grain) pease 

Sow (an individual animal) sows 

Sow or swine (the species) swine 

Penny (a coin ) pennies 

Penn (a sum or value) pence 

14:6. Note. — Though pence is plural, yet such expressions as 
fourpence, sixpence, etc., as the name of a sum, or of a coin repre- 
senting that sum, is often regarded as singular, and so capable of a 
plural ; as, " Three fourpences, or two sixpences, make a shilling. ,, 
" A new sixpence is heavier than an old one." 

147. Compounds ending in ful or full, and generally those which 
have the important word last, form the plural regularly ; as, spoon- 
ful, cupful, coachful, 7iandful, mouse-trap, ox-cart, court-yard, covmera- 
obscura, etc. ; plural, spoonfuls, cupfuls, coachfuls, etc. 

148. Compounds in which the principal word stands first, plural- 
ize the first word ; as — 



Singular. 
Commander-in-chief 
Aid-de-camp 
Knight-errant 



Plural. 
commanders-in-chief 
aids-de-camp 
knights-errant 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — NUMBER. 35 

Singular. Plural 

Court-mar* ial courts-martial 

Cousin-german cousins-german 

Father-in-law, etc. fathers-in-law, etc. 

Man-servant changes both; as, men-servants. So also, women- 
servants, knights-templars. 

14:9. The compounds of man form the plural as the simple word ; 
as, fisherman, fishermen. But nouns accidentally ending in man, 
and not compounds of man, form the plural by the general rule ; 
as, Turcoman, Mussulman, talisman; plural, Turcomans, Mussul- 
mans, etc. 

150. Proper names, when pluralized, and other parts of speech 
used as nouns, or mere names, form the plural like nouns of similar 
endings ; as, the AristoUes, the Solons, the Mariuses, the Pompeys, 
the Ciceros ; the ayes and noes, the ins and the outs ; by sixes and 
sevens, by fifties ; three fourths, two hakes; "His ands&nd his ors;" 
" One of the huts is superfluous." 

151. Exception.— Such words ending in y after a consonant, fol- 
low the general rule (137), and not the special rule (141) ; as, the 
Livys, the Tullys, the Henrys — " The whys and the bys." 

152. Letters, marks, and numerical figures, are made plural by 
adding 's ; as, " Dot your i's, and cross your t's." — " Your s's are not 
well made." — " The +'s and — 's are not in line." — " Four Q's = eight 
3 V' — " 9's give place to O's." 

153. Note. — Some good writers form the plural of proper names, 
etc., in this way ; as, the Marius's, the Pompey's — the why's and the 
wherefore's. But this is unnecessary and should be avoided. 

154. Words adopted without change from foreign languages, gen- 
erally retain their original plural. As a general rule, nouns in um 
or on, have a in the plural. Latin nouns in is, in the plural change 
is into es ; Greek nouns in is, change is into ides : Latin nouns in a, 
change a into m ; but Greek nouns change a into ata in the plural. 
The following are the most common, some of which, however, from 
common use, have become so much a part of the English language 
as to have also the regular English form of the plural. In the fol- 
lowing table, these are indicated by the letter R. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural 

Alumnus alumni Analysis analyses 

Alumna alumnae Animalculum animalcula, R. 

Amanuensis amanuenses Antithesis antitheses 



36 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Apex 


apices, R. 


Ignis fatuus 


ignes fatui 


Appendix 


appendices, R. 


Index (a pointer) indexes 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Index (in algebra) indices 


Automaton 


automata, R. 


Lamina 


laminae 


Axis 


axes 


Larva 


larvae 


Bandit 


banditti 


Magus 


magi 


Basis 


bases 


Medium 


media, R. 


Beau 


beaux, R. 


Memorandum 


memoranda, R. 


Calx 


calces, R. 


Metamorphosis 


metamorphoses 


Cherub 


cherubim, R. 


Miasma 


miasmata 


Chrysalis 


chrysalides 


Momentum 


momenta, R. 


Crisis 


crises 


Monsieur 


messieurs 


Criterion 


criteria 


Mr. (master) 


messrs. (masters) 


Datum 


data 


Nebula 


nebulae 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Oasis 


oases 


Diaeresis 


. diaereses 


Parenthesis 


parentheses 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


Radius 


radii 


Emphasis 


emphases 


Scholium 


scholia, R. 


Encomium 


encomia, R 


Seraph 


seraphim, R. 


Ephemeris 


ephemerides 


Speculum 


specula 


Erratum 


errata 


Stamen 


stamina, R. 


Focus 


% foci 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Formula 


formulae, R. 


Stratum 


strata 


Fungus 


fungi, funguses 


Thesis 


theses 


Genius 


genii (145) 


Vertebra 


vertebrae 


Genus 


genera 


Vertex 


vertices, R. 


Gymnasium 


gymnasia, R. 


Virtuoso 


virtuosi 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Vortex 


vortices, R. 


EXEKCISES OK LOTTOS 


IRREGULAR IK NUMBER. 



Give the plural o/— Man, foot, penny, mouse, ox, child, 
woman, brother, goose, tooth ; — sow, die, court-martial, 
father-in-law, son-in-law; cupful, coachful, spoonful;— 
erratum, medium, radius, genius, lamina, automaton, phe- 
nomenon, stratum, axis, ellipsis, stamen, index, cherub, 
seraph, etc. 

Of what number is— Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese, dor- 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — NUMBER. 37 

mice, alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth, woman, 
child, court-martial, apparatus, miasma, genii, geniuses, 
indices, indexes, mathematics, Matthew, James, John ? 

Observations on Number* 

155. Some nouns are used in the singular only. Such are the 
names* of metals, virtues, vices, arts, sciences, abstract qualities, and 
things weighed or measured; as, gold, meekness, piety, idleness, 
intemperance, sculpture, geometry, wisdom, flour, milk, etc. Except 
when different sorts of things are expressed ; as, wines, teas, sugars, 
liquors, etc. 

156* Some nouns are used in the plural only ; as, annals, antipo- 
des, archives, assets, ashes, billiards, bitters, breeches, clothes, calends, 
colors (military banners), dregs, goods, hysterics, ides, intestines, 
literati, lees, letters (literature), minutiw, manners, morals, nones, 
orgies, pleiads, or pleiades, shambles, tidings, thanks, vespers, vitals, 
victuals : Also, things consisting of two parts ; as, bellows, drawers, 
hose, nippers, pincers, pliers, snuffers, scissors, shears, tongs, etc. 

A few words usually plural, viz., bowels, embers, entrails, lungs, 
have sometimes a singular, denoting a part or portion of that ex- 
pressed by the plural ; as bowel, lung, etc. 

1 57. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, 
swine, vermin ; grouse, salmon, tench, trout ; apparatus, hiatus, series, 
congeries, species, superficies ; head (in the sense of individual), cattle ; 
certain building materials ; as, brick, stone, plank, joist in mass ; also 
fish and sometimes fowl, denoting the class. But several of these, in 
a plural sense, denoting individuals have the regular plural also ; as, 
salmons, trouts, fishes, fowls, etc. 

1 58. The words brace, couple, pair, yoke, dozen, score, gross, hun- 
dred, thousand, and some others, after adjectives of number, are 
either singular or plural ; as, a brace, a dozen, a hundred ; two brace, 
three dozen, six hundred, etc. But without an adjective of number, 
or in other constructions, and particularly after in, by, etc., in a dis- 
tributive sense, most of these words, in the plural, assume a plural 
form ; as, "In braces and dozens" — "By scores and hundreds" — 
" Worth thousands." 

159. 1. The following words, plural in form, are sometimes sin- 
gular, but most commonly plural in signification, viz. : amends, means, 
riches, pains (meaning laborious efforts), odds, alms, wages ; and the 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

names of certain sciences; as, mathematics, ethics, optics, acoustics, 
metaphysics, politics, pneumatics, hydrostatics, etc. 

2. Means and amends, referring to one object, are singular; to 
more than one, plural. Mean, in the singular form, is now used to 
signify the middle between two extremes. Alms (oslmesse, Anglo-. 
Saxon) and riches (richesse, French) are really singular, though now 
used commonly in a plural sense. News, formerly singular or plural, 
is now mostly singular. Molasses and measles, though ending like a 
plural, are singular, and are so used. Oats is generally plural ; gal- 
lows is both singular and plural, though a distinct plural form, gal- 
lowses, is also in use. 

160, The following are singular in form, but in construction va* 
rious ; thus, foot and horse, meaning bodies of troops, and people, 
meaning persons, are always construed as plural ; cannon, shot, sail, 
cavalry, infantry, as singular or plural. People (also folk), when it 
signifies a community or body of persons, is a collective noun in the 
singular, and sometimes, though rarely, takes a plural form ; as, 
" Many peoples and nations." Rev, x. 11. 

The Plural of Proper Names. 

161. Proper names for the most part want the plural ; but — 

1. Proper names without a title are used in the plural, when they 
refer to a race or family ; as, " The Campbells," "the Stuarts;" or to 
several persons of the same name ; as, " The twelve Ccesars ;" or when 
they are used to denote character ; as, " The Ciceros of the age." 

2. Proper names with the title of Mrs. prefixed, or with any title, 
preceded by the numerals, two, three, etc., pluralize the name, and not 
the title; as, "The Mrs. Howards;" "the two Miss Mortons;" "the 
two Mr. Henrys" 

3. But when several persons of the same name are spoken of indi- 
vidually, and distinguished by a particular appellation, or when per- 
sons of different names are spoken of together, the title only, and not 
the name is made plural ; as, " Misses Julia and Mary Robinson ;" 
"Messrs. George and Andrew Thomson;" "Messrs. Jones, Brown, 
and Robinson." 

Thus far, usage and the rule are settled and uniform ; but — 

4. In other cases, usage is still unsettled. Some writers, perhaps 
the majority, pluralize the title and not the name ; as, " The Misses 
Brown;" "the Messrs. Harper." Others, of equal authority, regard- 
ing the title as a sort of adjective, or the whole as a compound name, 
pluralize the name, and not the title ; as, " The Miss Browns ;" " the 



ETYMOLOGY — WORDS — CASE. 39 

Mr. Harpers." This form is more common in conversation, and, 
being less stiff and formal, is more likely to prevail. A few improp- 
erly pluralize both name and title; as, "The Misses Browns;" "the 
Messrs. Harpers" 

5. Names, with other titles prefixed, follow the same analogy ; as, 
" Lords Wellington and Lynedoch ;" " the lords bishops of Durham 
and St. David's ;" " the generals Grant and Sherman." 



Cases of Nouns. 

162. Case is the state or condition of a noun 
with respect to the other words in a sentence. See 
164-166. 

163. Nouns in English have three cases, the 
Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. 

164. A noun is in the Nominative case — 

1. When it is used as the subject of a finite verb (315) ; 

as, " John reads." 

2. When it is used as a predicate (586); as, "John is a 

good boy" 

3. When it is used absolutely, or independent of any 

other word; as, "0 Absalom, my son!" 

Remark. — A noun used in direct address, as in the last instance, 
is by some said to be in the vocative case. 

165. The Possessive case connects with the name 
of an object, the idea of origin, possession, or fitness; as, 
The sun's rays; John's book; a boy's cap; men's shoes. It 
is always found with another substantive, whose meaning 
it limits (839). 

A noun in the possessive case limits the noun to which it is joined, 
like an adjective, but should be parsed as a noun ; for it never loses 
its characteristics as such ; as, " If this conies to the governor's ears, 
we will persuade Mm" etc. (Matt, xxiii. 14). 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAE, 

166. The Objective case is used— 

1. To denote the object of a transitive verb (317) in the 

active voice (368); as, "James assists Thomas. 

2. To denote the object of a relation expressed by a 

preposition (538) ; as, " They live in London" 

3. To denote time, value, weight, or measure, without a 

governing word (828); as, "James is ten years old." 

[Note. — Some authors assign the nominative case to words used 

merely as names. Words not in relation can, strictly speaking, have 

no case, but, for convenience in referring to them, this distinction is, 

in some instances, Tetained.] 

GENERAL KULES. 

167. The nominative and the objective of 
nouns are alike in form. 

168. The possessive singular is formed by add- 
ing an apostrophe and s to tlie nominative; as, 
John's. 

169. When tlie plural ends in s, the possessive 
is formed by adding an apostrophe only ; as, ladies'. 
But when the plural does not end in s, both the 
apostrophe and s are added ; as, metis, children's. 

Inflection of Nouns. 

170. Nouns are thus inflected — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. 
Nom. Lady ladies Man men John 

Poss. Lady's ladies' Man's men's John's 

Obj. Lady ladies Man men John 

171* Proper names for the most part want the plural (161). 

Observations on the Possessive. 

172. The 's in the possessive case is evidently an abbreviation for 
the old English termination of the genitive in es or is. Thus, " The 
king's crown" was written, " The king^s crown." That s is not an ab- 
breviation for his, as some have supposed, is manifest from the fact, 
that it is used where Ms could not be properly employed ; thus, wo- 



ETYMOLOGY — KOUNS — POSSESSIVE. 41 

man's, men's, children's, book's, etc., can not be resolved into woman 
Ms, men Ms, cMldren Ms, etc. 

The apostrophe ( ' ) after s in the plural, is not a mark of abbre- 
viation, but is used in modern times, merely as a sign of the pos- 
sessive. Its use in the plural is of but recent date. 

173. When the nominative singular ends in ss, or in 
letters of a similar sound, though to retain the s after the 
apostrophe is never wrong, yet, as a matter of taste, it is 
sometimes omitted in order to avoid harshness, or too close 
a succession of hissing sounds; as, "For goodness' sake;" 
" for conscience' sake ;" so also " Moses' disciples ;" " Jesus' 
feet." 

174:* Note. — There is considerable diversity of opinion and usage 
on this point. Some few insist on retaining s after the apostrophe in 
every position ; as, " Xanthus's stock of patience." — IS Estrange. Oth- 
ers drop the s only before a word beginning with an s or an s-sound, 
as above ; while others drop the s wherever the use of it would pro- 
duce harshness, or difficulty of pronunciation. Though in this last, 
the usage which omits the s is less prevalent and less accurate than 
that which retains it, yet, from the sanction it has obtained — from the 
stiffness and harshness which retaining the s often occasions — and 
from the tendency in all spoken language to abbreviation and euphony, 
it seems destined to prevail against all arguments to the contrary. 

1 75* Remake;. — In written language, the omission of the s occa- 
sions but little inconvenience ; for the apostrophe sufficiently indicates 
the case, and the construction will generally indicate the number. In 
spoken language, however, the use of the s is more necessary, to avoid 
obscurity, especially in proper names. Thus, in spoken language, 
"Davy's Surveying," and "Davies' Surveying," sound precisely alike, 
though the names are different. Hence, to indicate the last name 
correctly in speaking, it will be more accurate, though less euphonic, 
to say, "Davies's Surveying." Thus, also, "Perkins' Arithmetic," 
" Sparks' Analysis," in spoken language, may be mistaken for " Per- 
kin's Arithmetic," " Spark's Analysis." In such cases, precision will 
be secured at the expense of euphony, by retaining the s, while 
euphony will be attained, frequently at the expense of precision, by 
dropping it. 

176. The meaning of the possessive may, in general, be expressed 
by the word tf/with the objective; thus, for "man's wisdom," "vir- 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tue's reward," we may say, " the wisdom of man" " the reward of 
virtue" This mode will generally be preferred, when the use of the 
possessive would appear stiff or awkward; thus, "the length of the 
day," is better than " the day's length." In some few words which 
want the possessive plural, such as father-in-law, court-martial, etc., 
this is the only substitute. These two modes of expression, however, 
are not always equivalent ; thus, "the king's picture," means any pic- 
ture belonging to the king ; " a picture of the king," means a portrait 
of him, without saying to whom it belongs. So also, of with the ob- 
jective, can not always be represented by the possessive ; as, "A piece 
of gold" "a cord of wood" "the house of representatives " etc. (844), 

Parsing the Noun (93)» 

177. A noun is parsed etymologically, "by 
stating its accidents, or grammatical properties 
(110), as exemplified (181). 

1 78. Note. — The possessive is easily known by its form. As the 
nominative and objective of nouns are alike, in parsing nouns in the 
following lists, all nouns not in the possessive, may be said to be in 
the nominative. The method of distinguishing the nominative and 
objective will be explained in its proper place. As person belongs, 
not to the form, but to the relations of the noun, the mention of it 
may be omitted for the present. 

170. N". B.— In all parsing, much time will be saved, if the pupil 
be accustomed to say everything necessary to be said, at once, with- 
out waiting to have each particular drawn from him by a question — 
to say it in the shortest possible manner — and also to say the same 
things always in the same order. Every teacher will of course select 
that order which he prefers. The order here presented may perhaps 
be acceptable to most teachers (182). 

180. As it makes no difference in the construction of a sentence, 
whether a noun be proper or common, there seems to be little or no 
advantage in mentioning this distinction in parsing. Some accord- 
ingly omit this, as well as person in parsing, for the sake of brevity — 
an object worthy of consideration in a large school, where economy 
of time is important. Or, when a proper noun occurs, which is com- 
paratively seldom, it may be mentioned, taking it always for granted 
that a noun is common when not otherwise mentioned. This appears 
to be sufficient for every purpose. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 43 

PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE, 

181* In proceeding to parse the nonn, the teacher, if he thinks 
proper, may begin by some such inductive process as the following : 

The class having gone through the preceding definitions and rules, 
the teacher may call on some one to mention the name of any thing 
he sees, or happens to think of; and suppose he mentions the words 
house, tree, book, desk, pen, etc., let these words be written on the 
blackboard. He may then call on another, and another, in the same 
way, still writing the names as mentioned. In this way the pupils 
will furnish a list of exercises for themselves. 

The teacher may then take the first of these, "house," and write it 
by itself on the board, at the left hand, and proceed with some such 
questions as the following, the answers to which, from what has been 
previously learned, will be obvious, and readily given : — 

Is House the name of any thing? 

What part of speech is the name of a thing? 

Then, what part of speech is House t Ans. "A noun" 
(After the word house on the board now write the word " noun") 

What is a noun ? — How many kinds of nouns are there ? 

What is a proper noun ? — what a common noun? 

Is the word house proper or common ? Ans; Common. Why? 
(Then after the word " noun " write the word common, as before.) 

What are the properties or accidents of the noun ? 

What is gender? — How many genders are there? 

What nouns are masculine? — what feminine? — what neuter? 

To which of these does the word house belong? Ans. Neuter. Why? 
(Then write the word neuter after common, as above.) 

What is the next property of the noun ? 

What is number ? — How many numbers are there ? 

What does the singular denote ? — the plural ? 

Does house denote one or more than one ? 

Of what number then is house f Ans. Singular. 
(Now add as above the word singular) 

What is the next property of a noun ? 

How many cases are there ? Name them. 

Inflect house in the singular : in the plural. 

Which of these cases is used when a noun is mentioned simply as 
the name of an object? (166 — Note). 

House being used in this manner here, in what case is it ? Ans. In 
the Nominative. 

(Then write nominative at the end, as above.) 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

There^will now have been written on the blackboard the follow- 
ing:— 

House, Noun, Common, Neuter, lingular, Nominative. 

The teacher may then ask, as a sort of review : Why do yon call 
house, 'a noun? — why, common? — why, neuter? — why, singular? — 
why, the nominative ? — requiring a distinct answer to each question. 
And lastly, he may require the pupil to state these reasons in order, 
without the questions being asked ; thus : — 

House — a Noun, because the name of a thing ; 

Common, because it belongs to all tilings of the sort ; 
Neuter, because without sex ; 
Singular, because it denotes one, plural, houses; 
Nominative, because it is used only as a name (166). 

By repeating this process a few times, occasionally, all that belongs 
to the parsing of a noun will become so familiar, and so clearly un- 
derstood, as to be always easy. 

182 • In parsing, these accidents may be stated, either in the order 
above, or in such as the teacher prefers. Some say, " A common neu- 
ter noun, in the nominative singular." Others prefer, as giving more 
prominence to the accidents, and sufficiently euphonious, to say, " A 
noun, common, neuter, in the nominative singular ; — or omitting the 
hind of noun, except when a proper noun occurs, for reasons stated 
(180), to say more briefly, "A noun, neuter, in the nominative singu- 
lar." This last method is the one here recommended, as being brief 
and sufficiently descriptive. 

EXERCISES. 

1. State the gender, case, and number of the following nouns, and 
always in the same order ; thus, " Father, a noun, masculine, in the 
nominative, singular" 

Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, wife, 
hats, sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' wings, 
echo, ox's horn, mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's toy, 
grass, tooth, tongs, candle, chair, Jane's boots, Eobert's 
shoe, horse, bridle. 

2. Go over the same list, giving a reason for everything stated ; 
thus, "Father, a noun, because the name of an object; masculine, be- 
cause it denotes a male ; nominative, because mentioned simply as the 
name of an object (166); singular, because it denotes one" 



ETYMOLOGY — AETICLE. 45 

THE ARTICLE. 

183. An article is a word put before a noun, to 
indicate the manner in which it is used (707, etc.), 

184. There are two articles, a or an and the. 

185. A or an is called the indefinite article, be- 
cause it shows that its noun denotes a person or thing 
indefinitely, or without distinction ; as, A man, i. e., any 
man, or some man, without stating which one. 

186. A is used "before a consonant; as, a hook: also 
before a vowel or diphthong, which combines with its sound 
the power of initial y, or w; as, a unit, a use, a eulogy, a 
ewe, many a one. 

187. An is used before a vowel or silent h; as, an age, 
an hour ; also before words beginning with h sounded, 
when the accent is on the second syllable; as, an heroic 
action, an historical account ; — because h in such words is 
but slightly sounded. 

188. Note. — The primary form of this article is An (ane). The 
n has been dropped before a consonant, from regard to euphony. 

189. A or an is sometimes used in the sense of one, 
each, every ; as, "Six cents a pound ;" "two shillings a 
yard;" "one dollar a day;" "four hundred a year" (192). 

190. Remark. — In the expressions a hunting, a fishing, a going, 
a running, a building, and the like ; also, in the expressions, now 
nearly obsolete, " a Wednesdays," " a nights," " a pieces," etc., a is 
equivalent to at, to, in, on, and is to be regarded, not as an article, 
but as a preposition (548). In the same sense, it is used as a pre- 
fix in such words as afloat, ashore, asleep, abed, etc. 

191. The is called the definite article, because it 
shows that its noun is used definitely, and refers to some 
particular person or thing ; as, the man, i. e., some particu- 
lar man ascertained or pointed out. See Syntax (707-2). 

192. Note. — The article is sometimes said to limit the significa- 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tion of a noun, and is therefore called a " definitive." This is scarcely 
correct. A noun with a or an prefixed, is always used in an individ- 
ual sense, to denote one of a class. But this being for the most part 
sufficiently indicated by the singular number, the use of the article to 
mark the individual is necessary only in the few cases in which the 
noun, in the singular number, is used in a generic, as well as individ- 
ual sense. Thus, the terms man, woman, oak, etc., without an article, 
mean the species; but with a or an prefixed, they mean the individ- 
ual; as, a man, a woman, an oak. So far only can a or an properly 
be said to limit, or perform the part of a definitive. In other respects, 
it rather shows the want of limitation. 

193. In like manner, the article the commonly indicates that its 
noun is limited, and refers to some particular person or thing, but 
still the article is not the limiting word. A noun may be limited in 
a variety of ways ; by notoriety or eminence, by previous mention, by 
an adjective, a possessive, a relative clause, a preposition and its case, 
etc., but never by the article, except perhaps in the case of previous 
mention, and even that is doubtful. Thus, when we say, " The red 
book," "the boy's book," "the book which we lost," "the book on the 
table," we perceive that the word book, following the, is limited — not, 
however, by the article, but by the words red, boy's, etc. This fact 
constitutes a specific difference between the article and the adjective : 
the adjective always describes or limits its noun (195) ; the article does 
not, but is only a sort of index, to give previous notice that the noun 
is used in a particular way. 

Parsing the Article. 

194. The article is parsed "by stating whether it 
is definite or indefinite, and to what noun it "belongs ; 
thus, "A book." A is the indefinite article, and 
Tbelongs to book. 

EXERCISES. 



Is it proper to say — a man, 


oi an man ? 


why? 


a apple, 


or an apple? 


why? 


a house, 


or an house ? 


why? 


a hour, 


or an hour ? 


why? 


a unicorn, 


or an unicorn? 


why? 


a ewe, 


or an ewe ? 


why? 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 47 

1. Prefix the indefinite article a or an correctly to the following 
words. 

2. Tell which words are nouns, and why — parse them (177) — inflect 
them. 

Chair, table, horse, cart, book, house, garden, bird, owl, 
egg, oar, eye, tree, cow, unit, use, old man, young man, 
word, hook, pot, bench, desk, room, oven, oak, eulogy, ewe, 
uncle, aunt; — open wagon, useful contrivance, round stone, 
old hat. 

3. In the following, correct such as are wrong, and give a reason 
for the change ; — parse the articles and nouns. 

An cup, a door, a apple, a pear, a ounce, a pound, an hat, 
an wig, an eulogy, an youth, a honor, a heir, a crow, a os- 
trich, a pen— a ugly beast, a useful tree, an humming-bird, 
an neat cottage, a upper room, an huge monster. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 



195. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a 
substantive (109); as, "A good Iboy ;" "a square 
"box ;" " ten dollars ;" " we found him poor" 

196. A noun is qualified by an adjective, when the object named 
is thereby described, limited, or distinguished from other things of the 
same name. This is done in two ways : — 

1. Certain adjectives connect with their nouns some quality by 
which the objects named are described or distinguished from others 
of the same kind ; as, " A red flag ;" " an amusing story." Such are 
common and participial adjectives (202). 

2. Others merely limit, without expressing any quality ; as, " An 
American book;" "ten dollars;" "last week;" "this year;" "every 
day," etc. Such are circumstantial, numeral, and definitive adjec- 
tives (202). 

197. Adjectives, as predicates, may qualify an infinitive 
mood, or clause of a sentence used as a substantive; as, 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" To play is pleasant" — " That the rich are happy is not 
always true" 

198* Several adjectives sometimes qualify the same 
noun; as, "A smooth, round stone." (716). 

199* An adjective is sometimes used to qualify the 
meaning of another adjective, the two forming a sort of 
compound adjective; as, "A bright-red color ;" " a darfc-blue 
coat;" "a, cast-iron hall" 

200* When other parts of speech are used to qualify or 
limit -a noun or pronoun, they perform the part of an ad- 
jective, and should be parsed as such; thus, 

JSoun; as, A gold ring; silver cup, sea water, a stone 
bridge. 

Pronouns ; as, A he bear; a she wolf. 

Adverbs; as, Is the child well? for very age; the then 
king. 

Prepositions ; as, The above remark; the under side. 

201* On the contrary, adjectives without a substantive 
are sometimes used as nouns; as, "God rewards the good, 
and punishes the bad" — " The virtuous are the most happy" 
Adjectives used in this way are usually preceded by the, 
and when applied to persons, are for the most part consid- 
ered plural. 

Division of Adjectives. 

202* Adjectives are sometimes divided into the follow- 
ing classes, viz. : 

203* I. Adjectives denoting quality, called Common 

Adjectives ; as, good, sweet, large, short. 
Various kinds of qualities may be expressed — 
1. Those which are recognized directly hy the senses; 

as, white mow, flowing stream. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 49 

2. Those which we can affirm of anything only as com- 
pared with others; as, large man, short pencil. 

3. Those which express a relation in which any thing 
stands to ourselves or others; as, an agreeable acquaintance. 

204. II. Adjectives denoting quantity; as, one, 
much, little. 

Note. — When adjectives of magnitude refer to distinct individuals, 
they indicate quality rather than quantity; as, great lion, a 
small tree. 

Of adjectives denoting quantity, there are four classes : 

1. Definite numeral adjectives, denoting some exact 
number; as, seven men. 

Numeral adjectives are of two kinds, Cardinal and 
Ordinal. 

The Cardinal numbers indicate how many ; they are 
one, tivo, three, four, etc. 

The Ordinal numbers indicate which one of a num- 
ber ; they are first, second, third, etc. In compound num- 
bers, the last only has the ordinal form; as, twenty-¥iR,ST; 
two hundred and fifty-TKTKD, etc. 

Numeral adjectives, being also names of numbers, are 
often used as nouns, and so have the inflection and con- 
struction of nouns ; thus, by twos, by tens, by fifties. For 
ten's sake, for twenty's sake. One and one are two. Two 
is an even number. Five is the half of ten. Three fives 
aee fifteen. Fifteen is divisible by three. Twice two is 
four.* Four is equal to twice two. Three fourths. 



* In some arithmetics, the language employed in the operation of 
multiplying — such as " Twice two are four, twice three are six " — is 
incorrect. It should be, " Twice two is four," etc. ; for the word two 
is used as a singular noun — the name of a number. The adverb 
"twice" is not in construction with it, and consequently does not 
make it plural. The meaning is, " The number two taken twice is 
equal to four." For the same reason we should' say, " Three times 

3 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

2. Indefinite numeral adjectives are such as do not 
denote any exact number; as, few, many, several, certain, etc. 

3. Distributive numeral adjectives are such as 
point out a number of objects individually; the principal 
are each, every, either, neither. 

These are sometimes called adjective pronouns (296.) 

4. Those denoting quantity as applied to materials; 
as, much, little, some, any. 

205. III. Circumstantial, which express circum- 
stances of time, place, nation, etc. 

206. IV. Participial, consisting of participles, or 
compounds of participles, used as adjectives; as, an amusing 
story, an unmerited rebuke; to pass unmolested. 

The former of these loses its verbal character, and simply describes ; 
the latter sometimes performs the office of a participle, although evi- 
dently compounded after its derivation. 

[To these some add — 

V. Definitive or distinguishing adjectives, which do not 
express any property of an object, but merely point it out, or limit in 
various ways the meaning of the noun. To this class belong such 
words as this, that, these, those, former, latter. These sometimes ac- 
company the noun, and sometimes refer to it understood, or stand 
instead of it, after the manner of pronouns, and hence are sometimes 
called Pronominal adjectives, and sometimes Adjective pronouns. 
(See 289.)] 

Eemark. — The articles, a or an, and t he, are sometimes classi- 
fied as adjectives. (See 192, 193.) 



two is six," because the meaning is, " Two taken three times is six." 
If we say, "Three times one are three," we make "times" the subject 
of the verb, whereas the subject of the verb really is "one" and 
" times " is in the objective of number (828). 2 : 4 : : 6 : 12, should be 
read, " As 2 is to 4^ so is 6 to 12 ;" not " As two are to four, so are," etc. 
But when numerals denoting more than one are used as adjectives, 
with a substantive expressed or understood, they must have a plural 
construction ; as, " Two are better than one." 



ETYMOLOGY— -ADJECTIVES, 51 

207. Table of Adjectives. 

1. Sensible . Red. 

1. Of Quality . . -j 2: Comparative Long. 

3. Belational Pleasant. 









2. Of Quantity 



Definite numeral \ Cardinal ' 0na 
(Ordinal .First. 



Indefinite Few, many. 

Distributive Each. 

^■Measure Much. 

r Time Daily. 

3. Circumstantial -J Place Eastern. 

v Nation, etc. . American. 

(Proper adjectives.) 
U. Participial . inscriptive . ..... .Amusing. 

( Verbal (Compound) .... Unmerited. 

208. Adjectives in English are inflected only to express degrees 
of comparison / as, wise, wiser, wisest. 



Comparison of Adjectives. 

209. Commmon and participial adjectives for the 
most part have three forms, called degrees- of com- 
parison ; namely, Positive, Comparative, and 
Superlative. 

210. The Positive expresses a quality, simply ; 
as, " Gold is heavy" 

211. The Comparative expresses a quality in a 
higher degreee in one olbject than in another, or in 
several taken together; as, " Gold is heavier than 
silver." " He is wiser than his teachers." 

212. The Superlative expresses a quality in 
one object in the highest degree compared with 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

several others ; as, "Gold is tlie most precious of 
the metals." 

Sometimes, in the comparison of two objects, the quality 
compared is not named, but the meaning of the adjective 
sufficiently indicates the quality ; as, " My barn is larger 
than your house. ;" that is, the size, etc., is larger. 

2 IS. Remark. — The superlative degree, when made by prefixing 
the adverb most, is often used to express a very high degree of a 
quality in an object, without directly comparing it with others ; as, 
" He is a most distinguished man." Thus used, it is called the super- 
lative of eminence, and commonly has a or an before it, if the noun is 
singular ; and is without an article, if the noun is plural. The same 
thing is expressed by prefixing the adverb very, exceedingly, etc. ; as, 
" a very distinguished man ;" " very distinguished men." The super- 
lative of comparison commmonly has the before it. 

KTTLES FOR COMPARISON. 

214:. Eule 1. Adjectives of one sylllable form the com- 
parative by adding er to the positive, and the superlative 
by adding est ; as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

Words ending in e mute, drop e before er and est ; as, large, 
larger, largest. (66). 

215. Rule 2. Adjectives of more than one syllable, are 
commonly compared by prefixing more and most to the 
positive ; as, numerous, more numerous, most numerous. 

216. Remabk. — Though these rules indicate the prevailing usage, 
yet adjectives of two syllables are not unfrequently compared by ev 
and est; as, "Our tender est cares;" "The commonest materials;" 
and some adjectives of one syllable, as wise, apt, jit, etc., from regard 
to euphony or taste, are sometimes compared by more and most. 
Dissyllables in le and y are generally compared by er and est ; as 
as, able, abler, ablest. All adjectives in y after a consonant, change y 
into i before er and est ; as, dry, drier, driest ; happy, happier, hap- 
piest (57) ; but y after a vowel is not changed ; as, gay, gayer, gayest. 

217. A lower degree of a quality in one object compared with 
another, and the lowest compared with several others, is expressed 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 



53 



"by prefixing less and least to the positive ; as, sweet, less sweet, least 
sweet. This, by way of distinction, is sometimes called the compari- 
son of diminution, or comparison descending. 

218. The meaning of the positive is sometimes diminished with- 
out employing comparison, by annexing the syllable ish ; as white, 
whitish ; black, blackish. These may be called diminutive adjectives. 
So also various shades, degrees, or modifications of quality are fre- 
quently expressed by connecting with the adjective such words as 
rather, somewhat, slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, etc., and, in the 
comparative and superlative, by such words as much, far, altogether, 
by far, etc. 

219. Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, etc., 
though derived from Latin comparatives, and involving the idea of 
comparison, are not considered the comparative degree in English, 
any more than such words as preferable, previous, etc. They have 
neither the form nor the construction of the comparative (963-2). 

Irregular Comparison. 

220. The following adjectives are compared irregularly, 
viz.: 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative, 

Good better best 

Bad, evil, or ill worse worst 

Little . less, (sometimes lesser) least 

Much or many more most 

Late later, (irregular, latter latest or last 

Near nearer nearest or next 

Far farther farthest 

Forth (obsolete) further furthest 

Fore former foremost or first 

Old older or elder oldest or eldest 

221. 1. Much, is applied to things weighed or meas- 
ured ; many, to things that are numbered ; more and most, 
to both. 

2. Farther and farthest generally denote place or dis- 
tance ; as, " The farther they went, the more interesting 
was the scene f further and furthest refer to quantity or 
addition ; as, " I have nothing further to say." 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Older and oldest are applied to persons or things, and 
refer to age or duration ; as, " Homer is an older poet than 
Virgil ; " The pyramids are older than the pantheon." 

4. Elder and eldest (from the obsolete eld) are applied 
only to persons of the same family, and denote priority of 
birth ; as, " An elder brother." 

5. Later and latest have respect to time ; latter and last, 
to position and order. 

222. Some superlatives are formed by annexing most, 
sometimes to the comparative, and sometimes to the word 
from which the comparative is formed ; as, upper, upper- 
most or upmost, from up; nether, nethermost; inner, 
innermost, or inmost, from in; hinder, hindermost, or 
hindmost, from hind ; outer, outermost, or utmost, from out. 

Adjectives not Compared. 

223. Adjectives whose signification does not 
admit of increase or diminution, cannot properly be 
compared. These are — 

1. Numerals ; as, one, ttvo ; third, fourth, each, all, 
some, etc. 

2. Proper adjectives ; as, English, American, Roman. 

3. Adjectives that denote figure, shape, or mate- 
rial ; as, circular, square, wooden, etc. 

4. Such adjectives as denote posture or position / 
as, perpendicular, horizontal. 

5. Definitives ; as, this, that, etc. 

6. Adjectives of an absolute or superlative signi- 
fication ; as, true, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, infinite, 
complete. 

224:. Remabk. — Of these last, however, comparative and superla- 
tive forms are sometimes used, either to give greater force to the 



ETYMOLOGY-ADJECTIVES. 55 

expression, or when the words are used in a sense not strictly abso- 
lute or superlative. The following are examples : — 

Extreme, — " The extremest of evils." — Bacon. " The extremest 
verge." — Shakes. "His extremest state." — Spencer. [So in Greek 
koxaruraTog]. 

Chief.—" Chief est of the herdsmen."— Bible. " Chief est courtier."— 
Shakes. " First and chief est." — Milton. 

Perfect. — " Having more perfect knowledge of that way," i. e., 
knowledge nearer to perfection. — Bible. So, "The most perfect 
society." — E. Everett. " Less perfect imitations." — Macauley. 

More complete, most complete, less complete, are common. 

Parsing the Adjective. 

225. In parsing an adjective fully : 1. State its 
class. 2. Compare, if admitting comparison (209), 
and if not compared, so state it. 3. Tell its degree 
of comparison, if compared. 4. The noun which, it 
qualifies. Do this always in the same order and in 
the fewest words possible. 

EXAMPLES. 

" A wise son maketh a glad father." — " Wisdom is more 
precious than rubies." — " The sluggard is wiser in his ovrn 
conceit, than seven men that can render a reason."— 
" Blessed are the pure in heart." 

Wise is a common adjective, compared by er smdest (214), positive, 
and qualifies son (196). 

Glad is a common adjective compared by er and est, positive, and 
qualifies father. 

More precious is a common adjective, compared by more and most, 
comparative, and qualifies wisdom (705, 4). 

Wiser is a common adjective, compared by er and est, comparative, 
and qualifies sluggard (196) and (705, 4). 

Seven is an adjective of quantity, numeral, cardinal, not compared, 
and qualifies men. 

Blessed is a participial adjective, compared by more and most, posi- 
tive, and qualifies men understood. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMAE. 

Pure is a common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and 
qualifies men understood. 

226. Abbreviation. — This process may be abbreviated 
without loss, by omitting the class (202), as of no use in 
Syntax (584), and also omitting to mention the degree of 
comparison (209), except the comparative or superlative, - 
taking it for granted, in adjectives compared, that it is in 
the positive, unless otherwise stated. Any mention of de- 
gree, in adjectives not compared, would be improper. In 
this way the preceding adjectives may be parsed, thus : — 

Wise is an adjective, compared by er and est, and qualifies son. 

More precious is an adjective, compared by more and most, com- 
parative, and qualifies wisdom. 

Wiser is an adjective, compared by er and est, comparative, and 
qualifies sluggard. 

227 9 PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

What is an adjective ? The pupil having given the definition (195) 
in answer, for the purpose of illustrating it, a list of nouns may again 
be formed on the blackboard as directed (181) ; and supposing the list 
to be man, horse, apple, house, tree, book, etc., the teacher may take 
them up, each in order, and proceed in some such way as the fol- 
lowing : — 

* Man. — What part of speech is man f Why ? Are all men exactly 
alike ? If not, mention some things in which they differ. Ans. Some 
are tall; some are short; some old; some young; some learned; 
some unlearned ; somewise; some foolish, etc. 

When you say " a tall man, a short man, an old man, a young man," 
what is the use of the words tall, short, old, etc. Ans. They are used 
to qualify the word " man, ,f by telling what sort of a man is meant 
(196-1). What part of speech are words used to qualify nouns? 
Then what part of speech are tall, short, old, young, etc. ? Prefix an 
adjective to each of the nouns in the list above, so as to make sense. 
Prefix as many adjectives to each noun separately, as you can think 
of, to make sense ; thus : House — a large horse, a small horse, a young 
horse, an old horse, etc. What part of speech is large, small, young, 
etc.? Why? 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 57 

COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 

Are all men equally tall? Ans. No; some men are taller than 
others. When you say, " James is taller than John," in what form or 
degree is the adjective taller? What does the comparative degree 
express (211) ? How is the comparative degree formed ? When is the 
comparative formed by annexing erf When, by prefixing mwe? 
What is the comparative form of tall, short, old, young, etc. ? What 
is the comparative form of learned, unlearned, foolish, virtuous, etc. ? 
Put the adjectives prefixed to nouns in the list above, in the compara- 
tive ^orm. — Form sentences, each of which shall contain a noun, and 
its adjective in the comparative degree. 

SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 

When you compare James with several other persons, and find that 
he exceeds them all in tallness, how would you express it ? Ans. I 
would say, "James is the tallest." What form of the adjective is 
tallest? What does the superlative express? In how many ways is 
it formed ? When by annexing est to the positive ? When, by pre- 
fixing most ? What is the superlative of tall, short, old, young, rich, 
poor, etc. ? — of learned, unlearned, beautiful, mrtuous, etc. ? Put the 
adjectives prefixed to the nouns, in the list above, in the superlative 
form. Form sentences, in each of which there shall be one of the 
above nouns, and its adjective in the superlative degree. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Compare — Bright, diligent, thin, noble, bad, pretty, 
fearful, brave, warm, active, worthy, cold, large, industri- 
ous, affable, wise, obedient, gloomy, able, sad, little, strong, 
near, dutiful, serene, big, good, careless, hot, late, fruitful, 
lovely, gentle, pleasant, sagacious, prudent. 

Add to each one of these adjectives a noun which it can properly 
qualify ; as, "A bright day" "a diligent student," etc. 

2. In ivhat form are the following adjectives ? — Mildest, 
better, high, more, uttermost, happiest, worthless, least, 
whiter, lowermost, worse, cruel, eldest, gentle, magnificent, 
best, many, less, gayest, peaceful, virtuous, sweetest, evil, 
inmost, happier, miserable, temperate, useful, delicate, hon- 
orable, meek, proud, amiable, morose. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Compare each of these adjectives. 

To each of these add a noun which the adjectives can properly 
qualify. 

3. In the following phrases, tell which words are nouns, and which 
are adjectives. Parse as directed (182, 194, 225). 

A good man; a kind heart; a clear sky; the benevolent 
lady; the highest hill; a skillful artist; an older compan- 
ion; man's chief concern ; a lady's lap-dog; most splendid 
talents; the liveliest disposition; a pleasant temper; the 
raging billows ; temples magnificent ; silent shades ; excel- 
lent corn; a loftier tower; a happier disposition ; the third 
day; a round ball; a square table; one good book is better 
than many bad books. 

4. Take a paragraph in any book ; point out the articles, nouns, 
and adjectives. Parse them ; but, in nouns, omit the case. 



PRONOUNS. 



228. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun ; as, "John is a good boy ; Tie is diligent in 
Ms studies." 

229. The noun instead of which a pronoun is used, is 
called its antecedent, because the pronoun refers to it 
as previously mentioned, or in some way understood (236). 

230. Pronouns of the third person are used in writing and speak- 
ing, to prevent the frequent and awkward repetition of the noun. 
Thus, without the pronoun, the above example would read, " John is 
a good boy ; John is diligent in John's studies." 

231. A pronoun is sometimes used instead of another pronoun ; 
as, " You and /must attend to our duty." See 730. 

232. Pronouns may be divided into Personal, 
Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective. 



ETYMOLOGY — PKO^OU^S. 



59 



Table of Pronouns* 





v 


" Simple . . . 


\ i, mou, ne, sne, it, one. 
C We, yon, they. 




r I Personal 




r Myself, thyself, himself, 






.Compound .- 


herself, itself. 
Ourselves, yourselves, 
w themselves. 

'Who. 






r Simple, . .^ 


Which. 
That. 


CQ 


II. Relative . . .^ 




^What. 

/ Who(so)ever. 


& 




. Compound . 


■J Which(so)ever. 


o 






( What(so)ever. 


III. Inteerogatiye 




/Who? 
] Which? 








(what? 








rMy, thy, his, hers, its, 






"Possessive 


| one's. 

( Our, your, their. 

'Each. 






Distributive .- 


Every. 
Either. 




k IV. Adjective. . .< 




Neither. 




Demonstra- 


{ This, these. 
(That, those. 




tive . . . 






'None, one. 




.Indefinite, .- 


Any, other. 
All, another. 








^Such, etc. (305). 



1. Personal Pronouns, 

233. Personal Pronouns are those which dis- 
tinguish the person fay their form. They are either 
Simple or Compound. 



60 ENGLISH GRAM MAE, 

Personal pronouns, or pronouns substantive, are 
simple substitutes for the names of persons or things, 
and have the same person, gender, and number as the 
nouns for which they stand. 

Every personal pronoun has a possessive pronoun answering to 
it, which, is joined to a noun in the same way as an adjective (291.) 

Simple Personal Pronouns. 

234. The simple personal pronouns are I, thou, 
he, she, it; with their plurals, we, you, they. 

Xis of the first person, and denotes the speaker ; 
Thou is of the second, and denotes the person addressed; 
He, she, it, are of the third, and denote the person or 
thing spoken of (111). 

235. The word one, standing for a person not named, 
may be regarded as a kind of indefinite personal pronoun; 
as, " One can never know," etc. 

The plural form, ones, is used in a more definite sense ; as, " The 
great ones of the earth." 

236. 1. The pronouns J and thou denote the speaker, 
and the person addressed, without previous mention, or 
even knowledge of their names, the persons intended being 
sufficiently indicated by their presence, or some other cir- 
cumstance. 

2. The pronouns of the third person refer to some person 
or thing previously mentioned, or easily understood from 
the context, or from the nature of the sentence. 

237. He 9 she, it, and they, are frequently used as 
general terms in the beginning of a sentence, equivalent to 
"the person," etc., without reference to a noun going be- 
fore ; as, " He [the person] that loveth pleasure shall be a 
poor man." " How far is it [the distance] to the city." 

238. They is also used in a vague sense for " people/ 



SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 




Worn. Poss. 


m 


Nom. Poss. 


Obj. 


I mine 


me 


We ours 


us 


Thou (244) thine 


thee 


You (245) yours 


you 


He his 


him 


They theirs 


them 


She hers 


her 


They theirs 


them 


It its 


it 


They theirs 


them 



ETYMOLOGY — PROtfOU^S. 61 

in such expressions as " They say," [like the French on, or 
the German mem]. 

239. The accidents of personal pronouns, like 
those of nouns (110), are Person, Gender, Num- 
ber, and Case. They are thus inflected : — 



1. M. or F. 

2. M. or F 

( Masc. 

3. } Fern. 
( Neut. 

Observations on Personal Pronouns. 

24-0. In many Grammars, the possessive of all the pronouns, 
except he and it, has two forms, as follows : My or mine ; thy or thine ; 
her or hers ; our or ours ; your or yours ; their or theirs. According to 
this arrangement, the first form, my, thy, etc., is always used "before a 
noun denoting the object possessed ; the second form, mine, thine, etc., 
as referring to a noun previously mentioned, or evident from the con- 
nection. Both adjectives and possessive cases of nouns are used 
either before nouns, or standing alone after the verb, thus : 
This is my house ; or, This house is mine. 
This is a good house ; or, This house is good. 
This is John's house ; or, This house is John's. 

To this classification there is no important objection ; and such as 
prefer it may readily adopt it, though, for reasons assigned (290), a 
different classification is here preferred. Mine and thine are some- 
times used, as possessives for my and thy (293). 

24:1. Some, again, regard my, thy, etc., as the only form of the 
possessive case, and mine, thine, etc., not as a possessive case at all, 
but as a substitute for the possessive case of the pronoun and the 
noun referred to together, and that it is in the nominative or objective 
case, according as the noun referred to would be, in the full expres- 
sion ; thus, " Your book is old, mine is new," is equivalent to " Your 
book is old, my book is new." Hence it is inferred, that mine is not a 
possessive case, but a substitute for my book, and the subject of is. 
This, though plausible, is obviously incorrect. If, instead of the pro- 
noun mine, we substitute a noun, that noun must be in the possessive 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

case ; tlms, " Your book is old, John's is new." The construction in 
these two sentences being identical, if " John's " is the possessive case, 
so also is " mine ;" and if in the possessive, it can not be the subject 
of " is." The mistake lies in considering mine a substitute for my 
book, whereas it really is a substitute only for my, including such a 
reference to the word book in the first part of the sentence, as renders 
its repetition in the second part unnecessary. When it is deemed 
proper to express the noun after the pronoun, the form mine, etc., 
must be changed for my, etc. Thus, we can not say " Mine book," but 
" My book ;" but we can with equal propriety say, " John's book," or 
" The book is John's." See Appendix III. 

242. 1. In the same manner may be explained, the use of the 
possessive after transitive verbs in the active voice, and after prepo- 
sitions ; thus, " James Tost his books, and I gave him mine," meaning 
my books. — u A picture of the king's," is a picture of (i. e. from) the 
king's pictures. So " A book of mine," is a book of (from) my books. 
" A friend of yours," is a friend of (from) your friends. 

2. It is worthy of notice, that though this use of the possessive 
after of originally and strictly implies selection, or a part only, it has 
insensibly come to be used when no such selection is, or ever can be, 
intended. Thus we may say, " That house of yours," " that farm of 
yours," without intending to imply that any other houses or farms 
belong to you ; and when we say, " That head of yours," selection is 
obviously excluded by the sense. 

243. In royal proclamations, charters, editorial articles, 
and tlie like, where there is no individual responsibility, 
we is frequently applied to one person. 

24:4:. TIiou is now used only in the solemn style — in 
addresses to the Deity, or to some important object in 
nature, — or to mark special emphasis, — or in the language 
of contempt. Ye, the plural of thou, is seldom used 
(except as the subject of the imperative), and only in the 
solemn style. It is sometimes used as the objective for 
you; as, "Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye!" 

245. You, the common plural of thou, is now used also to 
denote one person, but, even when it does so, it always takes a plural 
verb. This usage has become so fixed and uniform, that some emi- 
nent grammarians contend for its being regarded as singular. No 



ETYMOLOGY — PKONOUKS, 63 

advantage, however, would he gained by adopting this proposal, and it 
seems to accord much more with simplicity, as well as with fact, to 
regard it as a plural which has come to be used for the singular by 
the figure enallage (1044, 4). In certain kinds of writing (243), we 
is used in the same way, and so also is the corresponding pronoun in 
French, and some other modern languages, in which, however, it is 
always regarded as a plural form. 

246. The pronoun it is used in a variety of ways : — 

1. Properly it is used instead of a neuter noun, or 
substantive phrase ; as, " Life is short ; it should be well 
improved." " James is a good scholar, and he knows it" 
viz., that he is a good scholar. 

2. It is used as an indefinite subject of the verb to 
be, followed by a predicate in any person or number ; as, 
''It is If " It is you;" "It is they/ 9 etc. 

It is used in the same manner after the verb to he, in 
interrogative sentences; as, "Who is it?" "What is 
it?" etc. 

3. It is prefixed as an introductory subject to 

such verbs as to be, to happen, to become, and the like, refer- 
ring to an infinitive mood, or substantive phrase, which 
follows the verb, and is its true subject ; as, a It is an honor 
for a man to cease from strife;" i. e., To cease from strife 
is an honor for a man. "It has been proved, that the 
earth revolves on its axis ;" i. e., It, namely, that the earth 
revolves on its axis, has been proved. 

4. It is used indefinitely before certain verbs, to 
denote some cause unknown, — or general, — or well known, 
whose action is expressed by the verb ; as, " It rains ;" " It 
snows ;" " It is cold," etc. Verbs before which it is thus 
used, are said to be impersonal (520). 

5. It is sometimes used as a mere expletive ; as, 
" Come and trip it as you go." 

24:7. The possessives, Tiers, its, ours, yours, 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

theirs, should never be written her J s, it's, our's, your's, 
their's. 

248. Sis and its 9 before a noun, are possessive pro- 
nouns ; without a noun following, they are the possessive 
case (292). Her, before a noun, is the possessive pronoun ; 
without a noun, it is the objective case. 

Compound Personal Pronouns* 

249. Myself {our self), thyself {yourself), him~ 
self herself itself with their plurals, ourselves, your- 
selves, themselves, are called Compound Personal 
Pronouns. They are used in two cases — the nomi- 
native, and the objective. In the nominative they are 
emphatic, and are added to their respective personal pro- 
nouns, or are used instead of them ; as, " I myself did it." 
" Himself shall come." In the objective they are reflexive, 
showing that the agent is also the object of his own act ; 
as, " Judas went and hanged himself" 

250. The simple pronouns, also, are sometimes used in 
a reflexive sense ; as, " Thou hast hewed thee out a sepul- 
chre, as he that heweth him out a sepulchre on high." — 
Bible. 

251. Our self and yourself are used as compounds, 
corresponding to ive&nft. you, applied to an individual ; as, 
"We our self will follow." — Shakes. "You must do it 
yourself" 

252. The possessive emphatic or reflexive, is made by 
adding the word own to the possessives my, thy, his, her, 
etc. (295) ; as, " God created man in his own image." 
" The book is mine own" 

Parsing* 

253. Personal pronouns are parsed nearly like 
the substantives for which they stand (182). Thus, 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUKS. 65 

" I love " — 7" is a pronoun of the first person, mas- 
culine or feminine, singular, nominative. 

As an additional exercise, a reason may be assigned for each state- 
ment, thus : — 

I is a pronoun, — it stands for the noun . 



personal, — its form determines its person. 
first person, — it represents the speaker. 
Masculine, or Feminine, — it denotes male or female. 
Singular, — it denotes but one. 
Nominative, — subject (600) of love. 

254. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

What is a pronoun (228) ? What is a personal pronoun (233) ? In 
the sentence, " John is in the garden ; he says it is full of trees," for 
what noun or name, does the word he stand? Then what part of 
speech is he f Why ? For what noun does the word it stand ? — then 
what part of speech is it ? Why ? What other words stand instead 
of nouns ? (Write a list of them on the blackboard.) 

Write sentences, each containing one of these pronouns, and tell 
for what noun it stands. 

Select the personal pronouns from sentences in any reading-lesson, 
or book, and say for what nouns they stand. 

EXERCISES OK PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

1. Parse the following list, as directed (253). — I, thou, 
we, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, them, its, 
theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, it ; — myself, our- 
selves, yourself, himself, themselves. 

2. Select the personal pronouns in the following sentences, and 
parse them ; if of the first or second person, state what they designate ; 
if of the third, state the nouns for which they stand. 

James says he is older than I ; but I am taller than he. — 
That book is mine ; take it and read it. — Let them do it 
themselves. — When you learn the lesson, come to me, and 
I will hear you say it. — They will go when v/e return. — 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Thou art the man. — Your knife is sharper than mine ; 
lend it to me, if you please, till I mend my pen. 

3. Write sentences, each of which shall contain a pronoun in the 
nominative case — in the possessive case — in the objective case. 

4. Change the following sentences, so that the pronoun it shall "be 
omitted, and the subject or thing spoken of shall stand first (246-4). 

It is pleasant to see the sun. It is criminal to deceive. 
It is manifest that you have been deceived. It is said that 
the cholera has appeared in England. It is easy to talk. 

5. Write sentences of this kind both ways. 



2. Relative Pronouns. 

255. A Melative Pronoun is one that relates 
to, and connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun 
before it. The word to whicli it relates is called the 

antecedent (229) ; as, " The master wTio taught us." 

Kemark. — The relative clause limits or describes the noun to 
which the relative refers. 

250. The antecedent of a relative may be a noun — a 
pronoun — an infinitive mood — a clause of a sentence 
(636) — or any fact or thing implied in it; as, 

"A Uing tolio is just, makes his people happy;" . 

"He that is wise, is wise for himself;" 

" He who reads all will not be able to think, without 
which it is impertinent to read ; nor to act, without whicli 
it is impertinent to think ;" 

"We are bound to ohey the Divine laiv, ivhich we 
can not do without Divine aid;" 

" The man was said to be innocent, ivhich he was not." 

257. Relative pronouns are of two kinds, Sim- 
ple and Compound. 



ETYMOLOGY — PEONOUKS. 67 

Simple Relative Pronouns* 

258. The simple relative pronouns are who, 
tvhich, that, and what. That and what are inde- 
clinable, and used only in the nominative and ob- 
jective. 

Who is masculine or feminine, and which is mascu- 
line, feminine, or neuter. They are inflected as follows: — 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL. SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

JSFom. Who Which 

Poss. Whose Whose 

Obj Whom Which 

259. Who is applied to persons only; as, "The boy 
who reads." , 

260. Which is applied to inferior animals, and things 
without life; as, "The dog which barks" — "The book 
which was lost." 

261. This relative, as in Latin, sometimes, for the sake of greater 
perspicuity, has its antecedent repeated after it ; as, " I gave him a 
knife with an ivory handle, wlrich knife he still has." The construc- 
tion, however, is inelegant, and should be avoided. 

262. WJiich is applied also to nouns expressing collections 
of persons, when the reference is to the collection, and not to the 
individuals composing it ; as, " The committee which was appointed." 
Also to names of persons considered only as a word ; as, " Nero, which 
is only another name for cruelty." 

2 63. JVJiich has for its possessive ivhose ; as, "A religion 
whose origin is Divine;" Instead of "wliose," however, the objective 
with of before it is more common ; as, " A religion the origin of which 
is Divine." 

264. That is applied to both persons and things; 
as, "The loy that reads;" "the dog that barks;" "the book 
that was lost" (748). 

265. What is applied to things only, and is never 
used but when the antecedent is omitted; as, "This is 
what I wanted": — 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

266. In this example, properly speaking, what neither includes 
the antecedent, nor has it understood, in the ordinary sense of that 
expression. If it included the antecedent, then what would be of two 
cases at the same time, which, if not absurd, is an anomaly not to be 
readily admitted. If the antecedent were understood, it could be sup- 
plied, and then the sentence would stand ; " This is the thing what I 
wanted." But this is not English. The truth is, what is a simple 
relative, having, wherever used, like all other relatives, but one case ; 
but yet it has this peculiarity of usage, that it always refers to a gen- 
eral antecedent omitted, but easily supplied by the mind, and to which 
belongs the other case in the construction. The antecedent referred 
to is always the word " thing " or " things" or some general or indefi- 
nite term, obvious from the sense. When that-antecedent is expressed, 
the relative following must be which or that, but never what. Thus, 
" This is what I wanted," is equivalent to " This is that which, or the 
thing which, I wanted." Hence, though it is true that what is equiv- 
alent in meaning to that which, or the thing which, yet the error to 
which this has imperceptibly led, viz., that what is a compound rela- 
tive, and includes the antecedent, should be carefully avoided. — See 
Appendix IV. 

267. The office of the relative is twofold:— 

1. It is sometimes merely additive or descriptive, 
and connects its clause with the antecedent, for the pur- 
pose of further describing, without modifying it; thus 
used, it is a mere connective, nearly equivalent to and with 
a personal pronoun he, she, it, etc.; as, "Light is a body 
which moves with great celerity "=" Light is a body, and 
it moves with great celerity." 

2. It is more commonly restrictive, and connects its 
clause with the antecedent, in order to modify or restrict 
its meaning. Thus used, the relative with its clause is 
equivalent to an adjective ; as, " Every thing ivhich has life 
is an animal "=" Every living thing is an animal." When 
used in this way, the relative can not be resolved into and 
with a personal pronoun, for we can not say, " Every thing 
is an animal, and it has life." 

268. The relatives ivho and ivhich are used in both 



ETYMOLOGY — PEONOUNS. 69 

senses. That is used in restrictive, more commonly than 
in descriptive clauses. 

269. Which is sometimes used as a demonstrative 
adjective pronoun (302), equivalent to this or these, and 
qualifies or limits the substantive following it (676) ; as, 
" Which things are an allegory "== " These things are an 
allegory." 

279. What is, also, sometimes used in the same way ; 
as, " What money he earned was given to his mother." 

[Remake:. — In English, a relative must always be in the same 
sentence with its antecedent, and, if restrictive, in close connection 
with it. In Latin, the relative often has its antecedent in a preceding 
sentence, and connected with it by a conjunctive term. When this is 
the case, it should be rendered into English by a demonstrative, or 
personal pronoun. This difference of idiom should be carefully marked 
by classical students. See Lat. Grr., 295. Bullions and Morris', 701. 

271* In such sentences as the following — "Shun such as are 
vicious " — " Send such as you have " — some grammarians consider 
the word as a relative : in the first example, as the subject of are; 
and in the second, as the objective, after ham. Others, more properly, 
regard it, in all such sentences, as a conjunction, and the expressions 
as elliptical — to be supplied thus : " Shun such as [those who] are 
vicious." " Send such as [those which] you have." — See Appen- 
dix V. 

Compound Relative Pronouns* 

272. The relatives who, which, and what, with 
ever or soever annexed, are called compound rela- 
tives. They are used instead of the simple relative and 
a general or indefinite antecedent ; as, " Whosoever com- 
mitteth sin is the servant of sin;" that is, "Any one or 
every one who committeth sin," etc. " Whatever is evil 
should be avoided;" that is, " Every thing wtoUsevil," etc. 

They are inflected like the simple relatives from which 
they are derived ; but the compounds of which and what 
have no possessive case. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

273. Like tlie relative what, the compound relatives are used 
only when the indefinite antecedent is omitted. Whenever that is 
expressed, the simple relative who, which, or that, should be used as 
in the preceding examples. 

27&. It is therefore not correct to say, either that these relatives 
include the antecedents, and so have two cases, or that the antecedent 
is understood. The same reasoning that is applied to the relative 
what (266), is equally applicable to the compound relatives, only it 
must be remembered that the antecedent referred to in these, and to 
which one of the cases properly belongs, is always a general or indefi- 
nite term. 

275. In old writings, the antecedent word is sometimes expressed, 
either before or after the compound relative, for the sake of greater 
emphasis or precision ; as, " Blessed is he, whosoever shall not be 
offended in me." — Eng. Bible. " Whosoever will, let him take the 
water of life." This usage, however, is now nearly obsolete, except 
with the word whatever ; as, " Whatever you do, let it be done well." 

270. Whoso, formerly used in the sense of whoever, or whoso- 
ever, is now obsolete. 

277 • Whatever, whatsoever, whichever, and whichsoever, are often 
used before substantives, as a sort of indefinite adjective ; as, 
" Whatever course you take, act uprightly." When thus used, the 
noun is sometimes placed between what, which, cr whose, and soever ; 
as, " What course soever." — " Into whose house soever ye enter." (856). 

Parsing. 

278. The relative is parsed by stating its gender, 
number, case, and antecedent [the gender and num- 
ber being always the same as those of the ante- 
cedent (742)] ; thus : — 

" The boy who studies what is useful, will improve." 

Who is a relative pronoun, masculine, in the nominative 
singular, and refers to " boy," as its antecedent. 

What is a relative pronoun, neuter, in the nominative 
singular, and refers to " thing," or " that," as its antecedent, 
omitted: if supplied, tvhat must be changed into ivhich 
(266) ; thus, the thing ivhich, or that which. 



ETYMOLOGY — PROKOUKS. 71 

The pupil may assign reasons for the statements made 
in parsing, as exemplified (253). 

EXERCISES OIST RELATIVE PROKOTOTS. 

1. Write on the blackboard a list of nouns, arranged in a column 
on the left side, and write after each its proper relative ; thus, " The 
man — w7w ; " The bird — whic7i" 

2. In the following sentences, point out the relative, and the ante- 
cedent or word to which it relates. Also state whether it is additive 
or restrictive (267) : — 

A man who is generous will be honored.— God, by whose 
kindness we live, whom we worship, who created all things, 
is eternal.— That is the book which I lost.— He who steals 
my purse, steals trash.— This is the boy whom we met.— This 
is the man that did it— These are the books that you 
bought.— The person who does no good, does harm.— The 
woman who was hurt, is well. — This is the cat, that 
killed the rat, that ate the malt, that lay in the house that 
Jack built. 

3. In each of the following sentences, point out the compound rela- 
tive—mention the antecedent omitted, to which it refers. Insert the 
antecedent in each sentence, and make the necessary change in the 
relative (273) :— 

Whoever steals my purse, steals trash.— Whoever does no 
good does harm.— Whatever purifies the heart, fortifies it. 
Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye to 
them also. — Whoever sins, will suffer. — I love whoever loves 
me.— Now whatsoever God hath said to thee, do.— Whose- 
soever sins ye remit, they are remitted. 

4. In the following sentences, wherever it can be done, change the 
relative and antecedent for the compound relative : 

Bring with you every thing which you see.— Any one 
who told such a story, has been misinformed.— Any thing 

that is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. Any thing 

that gives pain to others, deserves not the name of pleas^ 
ure. — Every one who loves pleasure, will be a poor man. 



72 ENGLISH aRAMMAR. 



3. Interrogative Pronouns. 

279. Who, which, and what, when used in 
asking questions, are called Interrogative Pro- 
nouns; as, "Who is there? 5 ' "Which will yon 
take F " TFMtf did lie say F 

£<§©. TF^/O and which are inflected like the rela- 
tive (258). 

281. In questions, i#&o is equivalent to tuliat per- 
son / which and what have a noun following, to which, 
like an adjective, they belong ; or they refer to one under- 
stood, but easily supplied ; thus, " Who [what person] is 
there ?"— " Which book will you take?"— "What [thing] 
did he say f" 

282. Who applies to person only; which and 
what, to persons or things. 

283. As applied to persons, who inquires for the name; 
which, for the individual ; what, for the character or occu- 
pation ; as, " Who wrote that book ?" — " Mr. Webster." — 
" Which of them?" "Noah Webster."—" TFAa* is he ?"— 
" A lexicographer." 

284. The same pronouns used responsively, in the be- 
ginning of a dependent clause (635), or in what is called 
the indirect question (i. e., in a way which, in an indepen- 
dent clause, would be a direct question), are properly 
neither interrogatives nor relatives, but a sort of indefi- 
nite pronouns (306). This will be best illustrated by an 
example : — 

Interrogative. — " Who wrote that letter ?" 
Relative. — " I know the person who wrote that letter f 
that is, I am acquainted with him. 



ETYMOLOGY — PBOKOUKS. 73 

Indefinite. — "I know who wrote that letter f that is. I 

know by whom that letter was written. 

285. It is necessary to these words being regarded as indefinite — 

1. That they begin a dependent clause; 2. That thev do not ash 
a question ; 3. That an antecedent can not be supplied without chang- 
ing the sense ; and 4. That the whole clause be either the subje': 
a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition. These remarks will 
ly to all the following examples : " I know icfro wrote that letter f ' 
— " Tell me who wrote that letter V — " Do you know who wrote that 
letter ':" — " Xobody knows who he is.'" — " Who he is can not be 
known.'"'' — " Did he tell you who he is 7'' — " We can not tell which is 
he." — " I know not what I shall do.'" — "It is uncertain to whom that- 
book belongs." — " Teach me what is truth and what is error." 

Parsing. 

286. Interrogative pronouns, in both tlie direct 
and the indirect questions, are parsed by stating 
their gender, number, and case ; thus : — 

••' Who comes ? I know not who comes.'' 

Who is an interrogative pronoun, masculine or f-minine 
in the nominative singular. 

Who is an indefinite pronoun (or an interrogative pro- 
noun used responsively), , masculine or feminine, in the 
nominative singular. 

Eeasons may be assigned for each statement, as exem- 
plified (253). 

EXERCISES OX INTERROGATIVE PROXOUXS. 

1. Point out in which of the following sentences, iclio, which, and 
ichat are relatives ; in which, interrogatices ; and in which, indefinites, 

'Who steals my purse, steals trash. — To whom did you 
give that book ? — What I do, thou knowest not now. — 
Who you are. what you are, or to whom you belong, no one 
knows. — What shall I do ? — TTho built that house ? — Do 
you know by whom that house was built ?— Is that the 



74 ENGLISH GEAMAR. 

man who built that house ? — Which book is yours ? — Do 
you know which book is yours ? — I saw a book which was 
said to be yours.— I know which book is yours. — What in 
me is dark, illumine. — What is crooked, can not be made 
straight. — What is wanting, can not be numbered. — What 
is wanted ? — I know what is wanted. 

2. Write sentences, each of which shall contain one of these pro- 
nouns in one or other of these different senses. 



4. Adjective Pronouns. 

287. Adjective Pronouns are words used, 
sometimes like adjectives, to qualify a noun, and 
sometimes like pronouns, to stand instead of nouns. 

288. Adjective Pronouns are divided into four 
classes : Possessive, Distributive, Demonstra- 
tive and Indefinite. 

289. Adjectives used as nouns, or with a noun under- 
stood, commonly take the article the before them (201) ; 
as, the young; the old; the good, etc. Adjective pronouns 
do not. 

290* Of the adjective pronouns, the Possessives (291) clearly 
have a double character. As an adjective, they qualify a noun, and 
as a pronoun, stand instead of a noun. The Distributives, 
Demonstratives, and Indefinites, as adjectives, qualify a noun 
expressed or understood, or they stand instead of a noun, and thus 
may be regarded sometimes as adjectives, and sometimes as pronouns. 
Hence they are classed by some grammarians as adjectives, and called 
pronominal adjectives ; and by others as pronouns, and called 
adjective pronouns. The latter classification and name are here pre- 
ferred, because they have been admitted into the grammars of almost 
all languages ; and because a change of established nomenclature is 
an evil of so serious a kind, that it should not be incurred unless for 
the most urgent reasons. Still, it is a matter of little moment, in 
itself, which of these classifications is adopted. The principal point 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS, 75 

for the learner is, to know what words are adjective pronouns [or 
pronominal adjectives], and their character and use; and every 
teacher may adopt that classification and name which he prefers. 
For the convenience of such as prefer to consider them pronominal 
adjectives, they are classed with adjectives (207). 

Possessive Adjective Pronouns. 

291. The Possessive Pronouns are such as de- 
note possession. They are my, thy, his, her, its, 
—our, your, their. 

One's, in modem usage, has the office and construc- 
tion of a possessive pronoun ; as, one can not believe one's 
senses. This form, though common, is not to be admired. 

292. The possessive pronouns are derived from the personal, and 
combine the office of the adjective and pronoun, for they always 
limit one noun denoting the object possessed, and stand instead of 
another denoting the possessor. They agree with the possessive case 
of the personal pronoun in meaning, but differ from it in construction. 
The possessive pronoun, like the adjective, is always followed by its 
noun ; as, " This is my book ;" the possessive case of the personal is 
never followed by a noun, but refers to one known or previously ex- 
pressed ; as, " This book is mine." The possessive case of nouns is 
used both ways ; as, " This is John's book ;" or, " This book is 
John's/' 

293. Formerly mine and thine were used before a vowel, or 
the letter h, instead of my and thy ; as, " Blot out aU mine iniqui- 
ties ;" " Commune with thine heart." This form is still in use. 

2 9 J:. His, her, and its, when followed by a substantive, are 
possessive pronouns : not followed by a substantive, Ids is the posses- 
sive case of he ; her, the objective case of she ; and its, the possessive 
case of it. . In the English Bible, Ms is neuter as weU as masculine, 
and is used where its would now be used. See Prov. xxiii. 81 ; Is. 
lx. 22. 

29 5. Own is not used as a possessive by itself, but is added to 
the possessive pronouns, or to the possessive case of nouns, to render 
the possession expressed by them emphatic ; as, " My own book ;" 
" The boy's own book." Own is properly an adjective, but is by some 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMA K. 

grammarians erroneously parsed as part of the possessive. The pos- 
sessive pronoun, with own following it, may have its substantive 
understood ; as, " This book is my own'' 

Distributive Adjective Pronouns. 

296. The Distributive Pronouns represent ob- 
jects as taken separately. They are each, every, 
either, neither. 

297. Each denotes two or more objects taken sepa- 
rately. 

298. Every denotes each of more than two objects 
taken individually, and comprehends them all. 

299. Either means one of two, but not both. It is 
sometimes used for each ; as, " On either side of the 
river." 

300. Neither means not either. 

SOI. The distributives are always of the third person 
singular, even when they relate to the persons speaking, or 
to those spoken to ; as, " Each of us — each of you — each 
of them — has his faults." 

Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns. 

302. The Demonstrative Pronouns point out 
objects definitely. They are this, that, with 
their plurals, these, those (692-694). 

The when emphatic has the force of a demonstrative ; 
as, " That is the man." 

305. Yon and which, before a noun, seem more 
properly to belong to this class of words than to any 
other; as, " Yon trembling coward;" " Yon tall cliff;" 
" Which things are an allegory ;"=" These things," etc. 

304. Former and latter 5 first and last with the pre- 
fixed—though often used like that and this — referring to 
words contrasted; are properly adjectives (201). 



ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 77 

Indefinite Adjective Pronouns. 

305. The Indefinite Pronouns designate objects 
indefinitely. They are none, any, all, such, 
tvJiole, some, both, one (used indefinitely), other, 
another. The three last are declined like nouns. 

308. To these may be added, no, much, many, 
few, several, and the like ; also, tvho, which, and 
ivhat, used responsively (28-i). 

307 • One, denoting a definite number, is a numeral adjective 
(204) ; as, " One man is sufficient." But one, referring indefinitely to 
an individual, is an indefinite pronoun. Thus used, with its noun 
following, it is indeclinable like the adjective, as, " One man's interest 
is not to be preferred to another's." Without its noun following, 
it is either singular or plural, and is declinable, like the substantive ; 
as, "One is as good as another." " He took the old bird, and left the 
young ones." The same remark is applicable to the indefinites, 
other and another. 

The expressions the one — the oilier, denoting contrast (692), 
have the singular form only ; but they sometimes refer to antecedent 
words denoting more than one, regarded, however, either distribu- 
tively or as a class ; thus : " For that which befalleth the sons of men, 
befalleth beasts — as the one dieth, so dieth the other." — Eccl. iii. 19. 
See also Philippipois, i. 16. For these words the French have a plural 
form, les uns — les autres, literally, the ones — the others. 

308. None [no one] is used in both numbers ; and is 
never followed by a substantive; as, "None is so rude;'' 

' "Among none is there more sobriety/' 

309. Another is a compound of the article an and 
other; sometimes written separately, an other. 

310. Some is used with numerals, to signify about; 
as, " Some fifty years ago." This should not be imitated. 

311. The expressions, each other, and one another, form 
what may be called reciprocal pronouns, and express a mutual rela- 
tion between different persons. They have this peculiarity of construc- 
tion, that the first word of each pair is in the nominative, in apposition 
with the plural subject, which it distributes ; and the second, in the 
objective, governed by the transitive verb or preposition ; as, " They 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

loved each Other" i. e. ; They loved each the other; " They wrote to 
one another" i. e., one to another (673). Each other applies to two ; 
one another, to more than two. 

312. Some of these indefinites, and words of similar signification, 
are sometimes used adverbially with the comparative degree ; 
as, " Are you any better T " I am some "better ," " He is none the 
better — all the better," i. e. ; "Are you better in any degree ?" etc. 

Parsing. 

313* Adjective Pronouns are parsed Tby stating 
tlie class to which they belong, and the word which 
they qualify, thus : — ■ 

"Every day brings its oivn duties." 

Every is a distributive adjective pronoun, qualifying 
" day." 

Its is a possessive adjective pronoun, emphatic, qualify- 
ing "duties" 

[Oivn is a dependent adjective ; joined with its, to render 
the possession expressed emphatic (295) ].. 

EXEKCISES OK ADJECTIVE PKOKOUKS. 

1. Point out the adjective pronouns in the following phrases and 
sentences, and parse them : — 

Every man is, to some extent, the architect of his own 
fortune. — Do good to all men — injury to none. — All things 
come alike to all.— Your own friend, and your father's 
friend, forsake not. — This one, or that one, will answer my 
purpose ; both are good. — Some men love their money more 
than their honor. — Every one of us has his weak points 
(301). 

PKOMISCTJOUS EXEKCISES OK PKOKOUKS. 

In the following phrases and sentences, point out the pronouns, and 
parse them — each as already directed : — 

Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he 
is old, he will not depart from it. — Eemember now thy 



ETYMOLOGY — PRO^OU^S. 79 

Creator in the days of thy youth. — He is an object of pity, 
who can not respect himself. — Feeble are all those pleasures 
in which the heart has no share. — You may read the lesson 
yourself. — John and he lost themselves in the woods. — You 
and he may divide it between you. — You and she and I 
will divide it among ourselves. 

Exercises oi^ all the preceding parts of speech. 

In the following sentences, point out the nouns, articles, adjectives 
and pronouns, in the order in which they occur, and parse them : — 

My son, forget not my law ; but let thy heart keep my 
commandments : For length of days, and long life, and 
peace, shall they add to thee. — Let not mercy and truth 
forsake thee : bind them about thy neck, write them upon 
the table of thy heart. — Honor the Lord with thy substance, 
and with the first-fruits of all thine increase : So shall thy 
barns be filled with plenty, and thy presses shall burst out 
with new wine. — Happy is the man that findeth Wisdom. — 
Length of days is in her right hand, and in her left hand, 
riches and honor. — Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and 
all her paths are peace. — The sluggard will not plow by 
reason of the cold ; therefore shall he beg m harvest, and 
have nothing. — The hand of the diligent maketh rich. 



THE VERB. 



314. A Verb is a word used to express the act, 

being, or state of its subject (315) ; as " John runs /" 
' ' He is loved ;" " The boy sleeps ; Grass is green. ' ' 
Hence — 

A word that expresses the act, being, or state of a person 
or thing, is a Verb. Thus, we say, runs is a verb, because 
it expresses the act of John, etc. — See Appendix VII. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

31 5. The subject of a verb is that person or thing, 
whose act \ being, or state, the yerb expresses. Thus, in the 
preceding example, "runs/' expresses the act of "John"— 
"is loved" the state of "he" as the object acted upon (369) 
—"sleeps/' the state of "hoy"— and "is" affirms the exist- 
ence of the quality "green" in grass. In like manner, in the 
sentences, "Let him come;" " I saw a man cutting wood ;" 
" let" expresses the act of thou understood, denoting the 
person addressed — "come" the act of "him" and "cutting" 
the act of "man" 

Classification of Verbs* 

316. 1. In relation to their meaning and of- 
fice in a sentence, Verbs are of three kinds, Tran- 
sitive, Intransitive, and Attributive** 

This division corresponds with the three forms of sentences as pre r 
sented in Introduction. 

2. In relation to their form, they are divided into 
three classes, Regular, Irregular, and Defec- 
tive* 

3. In the formation of compound tenses, they are 
distinguished as Principal and' Auxiliary. 

317. A Transitive verb expresses an act done 
"by one person or thing to another; as, " James 
strikes the table ;" " The table is struck by James 5 ' 
(367). [See, also, 319, Remark.] 

318. An Intransitive yerb expresses the being 
or state of its subject, or an act not done to another ; 
as, " I am/' "He sleeps /' "You run." 



* The division of verbs into transitive and intransitive has been so 
generally adopted and approved by grammarian's, that the attribu- 
tive verb may be regarded as one form of the intransitive verb. 



ETYMOLOGY — YEEBS. 81 

319. An attributive verb asserts and connects 
an attribute with its subject ; as, " Snow is white ;" 
" Man is mortal." 

The term attribute is here used to signify a quality or other 
limitation asserted. 

Verbs otherwise intransitive become attributive when the sense is 
incomplete without an attribute ; as, " It looks round/' " It appears 
new." 

Remark. — An analysis of the passive voice, separating the partici- 
ple from the verb to be, will exhibit the latter as an attributive verb, 
and the former as an attribute of its subject ; as, 

Snow is white. — John is a scholar. — He is hurt. 

Established usage, however, makes it desirable to retain the dis- 
tinction of passive voice of transitive verbs. 

32 Oa. In this division, Transitive (passing over) verbs include 
all those which express an act that passes over from the actor to an 
object ; or the meaning of which has such a reference to an object, as 
to render the expression of it necessary to complete the sense ; as, 
"He loves us/' " I bjeiar you /' " James resembles his brother ;" 
" He has a book." 

320b. These three classes of verbs may be thus distinguished : — 

1. Transitive verbs in the active voice, require an object after 
them to complete the sense ; as, " James strikes the table. " In- 
transitive verbs do not require an object or any other word after 
them ; but the sense is complete without it ; as, " He sits ;" " You 
ride/' " The wind blows/' " The wheel turns." Attributive verbs 
require after them to complete the sense, some word or phrase, not an 
object, to limit or explain the subject; as, " Man is mortal." 

2. As the object of a transitive active verb is in the objective case, 
any verb which makes sense with me, thee, him, her, it, them, after it, 
is transitive. 

When a verb in the active voice has an obj ect, it is transitive : 
when it has not an object, it is intransitive or attributive. 

3. In the use of transitive verbs, three things are always implied 
— the actor, the act, and the object acted upon : in the use of the 
intransitive verbs there are only two — the subject, and the being, 
state, or act, ascribed to it — in the use of the attributive ver*bs, 
there are three — the subject, the assertor (verb) and attribute. 



82 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

321. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered 
transitive — 

1. By the addition of another word ; as, intransitive, " I 
laugh ; transitive, "I laugh at" (375). 

2. When followed by a noun of the same, or similar 
signification, as an object; as, intransitive, "I run? 
.transitive, " I run a race." 

322. The same verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, 
and sometimes in an intransitive sense. Thus, in the 
sentence, " Charity thinketh no evil," the verb is transitive. 
In the sentence, " Think on me," it is intransitive. - 

323. So also verbs, really transitive, are used intransitively, when 
they have no object, and the sense intended, being merely to denote 
an exercise, is complete without it. Thus, when we say, " That boy 
reads and writes well " — " reads " and " writes " are really transitive 
verbs ; because, a person who reads and writes, must read and write 
something. Yet, as the sense is complete without the object, nothing 
more being intended than simply, " That boy is a good reader and 
writer," the verbs, as here used, are intransitive. 

324. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

When we say, " John runs," what part of speech is John ? — Why ? 
What is the use of runs in the sentence ? It tells what John does. 
Is what a person or thing does, the act of that person or thing ? 
What part of speech are words that express the act of a person or 
thing? Verbs. Then what part of speech is runs? — Why? Of 
what is it that verbs express the act, being, or state ? Of their sub- 
ject. Whose act does runs express? Then what is John to the verb 
runs f When you say, " John runs," does it mean that he does any- 
thing to another ? What sort of verbs express an act not done to 
another ? What kind of a verb, then, is runs ? If you say, " John 
cuts wood," which word tells what John does ? Then what part of 
speech is cuts t Is it transitive or intransitive ? Why ? 

EXERCISES. 
1. In the following sentences, tell which words are verbs, and why 
—which are transitive, and why — which are intransitive, and why ? — 
which are attributive, and why ? 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 83 

The boy studies grammar. — The girls play. — Grass grows 
in the meadows. The farmer ploughs his field, and sows 
his grain. — Victoria is queen of England. — Romulus built 
Eome. — The sun shines. — Honey is sweet. — The winds 
blow. — The tree fell. — Bring your books, and prepare your 
lessons. — The apple tastes sour. — Have you recited ? — Who 
read last? — God created the heayens and the earth. — 
Columbus discovered America. 

2. Write a list of nouns, or names of persons or of tilings, in a 
column on the left side of the blackboard ; write after each, a word 
or words which tell something that each of them does or is; tell what 
part of speech that word is, and why : if a verb, whether transitive, 
intransitive, or attributive, and why ? 

Formation of Tenses. 

825. In respect of form, verbs are divided into Regular, 
Irregular, and Defective. 

826. A Megular verb is one that forms its past 
tense (415) in the indicative active, and its past par- 
ticiple, by adding ed to the present ; as, present, act ; 
past, acted ; past participle, acted. 

Note. — Verbs ending in e mute, drop e before ed ; as love, loved, 
loved (m). See 494. 

327. An Irregular verb is one that does not form 
its past tense in the indicative active, and its past par- 
ticiple, by adding ed to the present ; as, present, write; 
past, wrote ; past participle, written. 

828. A Defective verb is one in which some of the 
parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly Auxiliary 
and Impersonal verbs. 

Auxiliary Verbs. 

829. Auxiliary (or helping) verbs are those by the 
help of which other verbs are inflected. They are, do, 



84 ENGLISH GKAMMxVE. 

have, he; — shall, will; — may, can, must; — and, 
except be, they are used only in the present and the past 
tense; thus: — 

Present. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, must. 
Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, 

330* Be, do, and have, are also principal verbs, and, 
as such, belong to irregular verbs (512). Me is used as an 
auxiliary in all its parts (354). 

For the inflection of auxiliaries with the principal verb, see 494, 
507, and 516. 

The Use of Auxiliaries. 

331. Some verbs, now used as auxiliaries only, were probably 
at first independent verbs, and combined syntactically with the fol- 
lowing verb, in the infinitive— the sign to being in process of time 
omitted, as it now is after such verbs as see, hear, feel, etc. (877) ; thus, 
" I can [to] do "— " They will [to] write "— " We could [to]go," etc. ; 
and some grammarians contend that they should be so considered 
still (381). 

332. Shall, will, may, can, and their past tenses, should, 
would, etc., as auxiliaries, retain the personal endings of the second 
person singular; thus, slialt, wilt, mayst, canst — shouldst, wouldst, 
mightst, couldst. But in their present they do not retain the personal 
ending of the third person singular ; thus, we say, he shall, will, may, 
can — not he shalls, wills, mays, cans. This will be seen by their use 
in the inflection of verbs. 

333. Do is used as an auxiliary in the present tense, and did in 
the past, to render the expression emphatic ; as, " I do love " — " I did 
love." Also when the verb in these tenses is used interrogatively, or 
negatively; as, " Does he study?" — "He does not study." — "D^he 
go ?" — " He did not go." — Do is used as an auxiliary in the second 
person singular of the imperative ; as, " Do thou love." 

33d. Have is used as an auxiliary in the present-perfect tense, 
and had in the past-perfect. 

For further remarks upon the analysis of compound tenses, with 
do and have as auxiliaries, see Appendix VII. 



ETYMOLOGY — AUXILIARIES. 85 

Shall and Will— Should and Would.* 

335, Shall, primarily and strictly, denotes present obligation ; 
as, "I shall go," i. e., I am under obligation to go ; and will, pre- 
sent inclination, purpose, or volition ; as, " I will go," i. e., It is my 
purpose to go, (I will to go) ; from which the futurity of the act, etc., 
is naturally inferred. But, as auxiliaries, the primary signification is 
nearly lost sight of, and they are used to denote futurity — still modi- 
fied, however, in their use, by their primary signification. They are 
usually distinguished as follows : — 

Shall and Will, expressing resolution, purpose, etc. 

336. Will denotes the purpose, resolution, or inclination, of a 
person, in reference to his own acts ; and shall, his purpose, etc., in 
reference to the acts of others over, whom he has authority or power. 
As the purpose expressed may be that of the speaker, of the person 
addressed, or of the person spoken of, hence will arise the three fol- 
lowing forms, viz. : — 

First Form. — Expressing the resolution of the speaker. It is 
my purpose or intention that — I will write — you shall write — he shall 
write. Or, without a preceding clause : I will write — you shall write 
— he shall write. 

Second Form. — Expressing the resolution of the person addressed. 
It is your purpose, etc., that — I shall write — you will write — he shall 
write. 

Third Form. — Expressing the resolution of the person spoken of. 
It is Ms purpose, etc., that — I shall write — you shall write — he (him- 
self) will write — he (another) shall write. 

The second and third forms can not be used without a preceding 
clause. 

337 • Hence it is manifest that will expresses the purpose, resolu- 
tion, promise, etc., of the subject of the verb. Thus : — 

I will go, \ ( My resolution, etc. 

Thou wilt go, V expresses -< Thy resolution, etc. 
He will go, ) ( His resolution, etc. 

338, Fixed purpose or determination, however, is expressed in a 
more positive and absolute manner in the first person by shall than by 



* Pupils may be required to analyze these as other compound 
tenses of the verb, giving the distinctive meaning of each part. Such 
an exercise will tend to produce critical accuracy in the use of these 
auxiliaries. 



86 ENGLISH GRAIIAE. 

will, because in this way, the person, as it were, divests himself of 
will, and puts himself entirely at the disposal of another. Thus, a 
person may say, " I shall go, though much against my inclination." 

For this reason, shall is more polite and respectful in a promise, 
and more offensive in a threat, than will. 

Interrogatively. 

339. In asking questions, these auxiliaries, in this sense, are used 
with reference to the will of the second person, to whom a question is 
always supposed to be addressed, and hence are used as in the second 
of the above forms ; thus — 

Shall I write ? Will you write ? Shall he write ? — Equivalent to — 
Is it your purpose that I shall write ? — you will write ? — he shall 
write ? 

Shall and Will expressing futurity. 

340. In regard to simple futurity, the use of shall and will is 
directly the reverse of what it is in the expression of resolution : that 
is, will takes the place of shall, and shall takes the place of will. In 
other words, when a person in reference to himself foretells what is 
future, shall is used ; and in reference to others, will is used. Thus — 

First Form. — I think that I shall go — that thou wilt go — that he 

will go. Or, without a preceding clause : I sliall go — thou 

wilt go— he will go. 
Second Form. — You think that I will go — that you shall go — that 

he will go. 
Third Form. — He thinks that I will go — that you will go — that he 

(himself) shall go — that he (another) will go. 
34:1. But when the thing foretold is regarded, either as pleasing, 
or repugnant, shall is used with reference to the first person, even 
when others are represented as foretelling ; as— 

You seem to think ) ,-.. j I shall recover. 

He seems to fear ) (I shall not recover. 

Interrogatively respecting the future. 

342. Shall is used interrogatively in the first and the second 
person, and will in the third ; as, " Shall I arrive in time ?" — " Shall 
you be at home to-morrow ?" — " Will your brother be there ?" 

343. Shall is used, instead of will, after the conjunctions if, pro- 
vided, though, unless, etc. — the adverbs when, while, until, after, before, 
etc. — and also after whosoever, or a relative pronoun in a restrictive 



ETYMOLOGY — AUXILIARIES, 87 

clause (267-2) ; as, " If tkey shall enter into my rest" — " When he 
shall appear" — " There is nothing covered which shall not be re- 
vealed" — " Whoever shall put away his wife." 

34:4:. Should, the past tense of shall, and would, the past tense 
of will, are auxiliaries of the past potential ; and, in dependent clauses, 
are used in the same manner after a past tense, that shall and will are 
used after the present or future. Hence, in the preceding examples 
(336 to 338), if the verb in the preceding clause is put in past time, 
should will take the place of shall, and would, the place of will, in the 
dependent clause ; thus — 

First Form. — It was my purpose that I would write — you should 
write — he should write. 

So also in the other forms : but when there is no dependence on a 
preceding clause, these words will be used as in the first form. 

May, Can, Mast— Might, Could— To he. 

345* May denotes present liberty or permission ; can, present 
ability ; and must, present obligation or necessity. They are used 
auxiliaries in the present potential, to express these ideas. 

346. May sometimes denotes mere possibility ; as, " He may 
write, perhaps" — " It may rain to-morrow." 

347 • May, before the subject of the verb, is used to express a 
wish or prayer ; as, " May you be happy !" 

34 8. Can, in poetry, is sometimes used by euphony for canst; 
as, " Thou trees and stones can teach." — Dames. 

349. Might and could express, in past time, the same ideas 
generally that are expressed by may and can in the present. They 
are used as auxiliaries in the past potential. 

350. Might, before the subject, is also- used to express a wish ; 
as, " Might it but turn out to be no worse than this !" 

351. Sometimes, in the English Bible, might is used for may ; 
as, " These things I say, that ye might be saved." — John v. 34. 

352. Combined with have, these form a new series of compound 
auxiliaries ; thus, shall have and will have are auxiliaries of the future- 
perfect indicative ; may have, can have, and must have, of the present- 
perfect potential ; and might have, etc., of the past-perfect potential. 

353. But though may denotes present liberty, may have does 
not denote past liberty, but only the present possibility ; thus, " He 
may have written," means, It is possible that he has written. So, 



88 ENGLISH GEAIMAE. 

also, must have does not denote past necessity, but present cer- 
tainty ; thus, " He must haw written," means, There is no doubt he 
has written ; it can not be otherwise. 

354:. The verb " to he," in all its moods and tenses, is used as 
an auxiliary in forming the passive voice ; as, " I am loved ;" " He 
icas loved, etc. (507). Also, in the progressive form of the active 
voice ; as, " I am writing ;" " He was writing," etc. (506). 

355. All these auxiliaries are sometimes used without their verb, 
to express, by ellipsis, the same thing as the full form of the verb, 
together with its adjuncts, when that is used immediately before, 
either in the same or in a different tense ; thus, " He writes poetry as 
well as I do ;" " I can write as well as he can ;" " If you can not 
write, I will ;" " He will do that as well as I can;" " James can get 
his lesson as well as ever I could ;" " He envies me as much as I do 
him." 

356. The verb do (not auxiliary) is sometimes used as the sub- 
stitute of another verb or phrase previously used ; as, " We have not 
yet found them, all, nor ever shall do." — Milton. — " Lucretius wrote 
on the nature of things in Latin, as Empedocles had already done in 
Greek." — Acton. 

EXEKCISES. 

1. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason 
for the correction : — 

I will be a loser by that bargain. — I will be drowned and 
nobody shall help me. — I will be punished if I do wrong. — 
You shall be punished if you do not reform. — It shall pro- 
bably rain to-morrow. — If you shall come I shall come 
also. — Will I assist you ? — I will be compelled to go home. 
— I am resolved that I shall do my duty. — I purposed that 
if you would come home, I should pay you a visit. — I hope 
that I will see him. — I hoped that I would see him. — You 
promised that you should write me soon. — He shall come 
of his own accord, if encouragement will be given. 

2. In the following, tell which expressions are right, and which 
are wrong, and why : — 

It is thought he shall come. — It will be impossible to 
get ready in time. — Ye will not come to me. — Ye shall 



ETYMOLOGY — AUXILIARIES. 89 

have your reward. — They should not da as they ought. — 
We are resolved that we will do our duty. — They are re- 
solved that they shall do their duty. — I am determined 
that you will do your duty. — I am sure you will do your 
duty. 

Anomalous Usage, 

357. Several of these auxiliaries are sometimes used in 
a way which it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to explain 
in a satisfactory manner, and which may justly be regarded . 
as anomalous. The following are a few of these : — 

358. Had is sometimes used in poetry for would ; as, I had 
rather," " I had as lief," for, " I would rather," " I would as lief." 
Sometimes it is used for icould have ; as, " My fortune had [would 
have] been his." — Dry den. Sometimes for might; as, " Some men 
had [might] as well be schoolboys, as schoolmasters." 

359. Will is sometimes used to express what is customary at the 
present time ; as, " He will sometimes sit whole hours in the shade ;" 
" He will read from morning till night." 

360. Would, in like manner, is sometimes used to express what 
was customary in past times as, " The old man would shake his years 
away ;" " He'd sit him down." 

361. Would, is sometimes used as a principal verb, equivalent to 
the present of wish or desire ; as, " When I make a feast, I would my 
guests should praise it — not the cooks." — " When I would [when I 
wish to] do good, evil is present with me. Thus used, the subject in 
the first person is sometimes omitted ; as, " Would Gfod it were even," 
=" I pray God ;" " Would to God,"=" I pray to God." 

362. Would, with a negative, used in this way, is not merely 
negative of a wish or desire, but implies strong opposition or refusal ; 
as, " How often would I have gathered thy children — but ye would 
not ;" " Ye would none of my reproof." 

363. Should is used in all persons to denote present duty, and 
should have, to denote past duty ; as, " You should write ;" " I should 
have written ;" " The rich should remember the poor." 

It often denotes merely a supposed future event ; as, " If he should 
promise, he will perform." 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is sometimes used in an indefinite sense after that ; as, " It is 
surprising that you should say so." 

SS4:, Should and would are sometimes used to express an asser- 
tion in a softened manner ; thus, instead of saying, " I think him 
insane " — " It seems to be improper," it is milder to say,-" I should 
think him insane " — " It would seem to be improper." 



Inflection of Verbs. 



365. The Accidents of verbs are Voices, Moods, 
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons (473*). 

Of Voice. 

366. Voice is a particular form of the verb, 
which shows the relation of the subject or thing 
spoken of, to the action expressed "by the verb 
(494, 507). 

367* Transitive verbs have two voices, called 
the Active and the Passive. 

368. The Active Voice (494) represents the snb- 
ject of the verb as acting; as, " James strikes the 
table." 

369. The Passive Voice (507) represents the 
subject of the verb as acted upon ; as,- " The table 
is struck by James." 

In other words, the verb, in the active voice, expresses the 
act of its subject ; — in the passive, it expresses the state 
of its subject, as affected by the act. In the active voice, 
the subject of the verb acts — in the passive, it is acted 
upon. 

370. It is manifest from these examples, that whether we use the 
active or the passive voice, the meaning is the same, except in certain 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — VOICES. 91 

verbs in the present tense (509). There is the same act, the same 
actor, and the same receiver of the act. The difference is 
only in the form of expression. With the active voice, the actor in 
the nominative case is the subject of the verb (760); with the pas- 
sive, the actor is in the objective case after a preposition (818). — In 
using the active voice, the receiver of the act is in the objective case, 
as the object of the verb (801) ; in using the passive, it is in the nom- 
inative case, as the subject of the verb. 

37 1* It is manifest, also, that when we know the act done, the 
person or thing doing it, and that to which it is done, we can always, 
by means of the two voices, express the fact in two different ways ; 
thus, " God created the world ;" or, " The world was created by God." 
Also — 

372. When the active voice is used, we may sometimes omit the 
object ; thus, we can say, " John reads," without saying what he 
reads (323) ; and when the passive is used, we may omit the agent or 
actor ; thus, we can say, " The letter is written," without saying by 
whom. 

373* Hence, the following advantages arise from these 
two forms of expression : — 

1. We can, by the form alone, direct attention, chiefly, either to the 
actor, or to that which is acted upon — to the former, by using the 
active voice — " God created the world " — to the latter, by using the 
passive — " The world was created by God." 

2. By means of the passive voice, we are able to state a fact, when 
we either do not know, or, for some reason, may not wish to state, by 
whom the act was done. Thus we can say, " The glass is broken," 
though we do not know who broke it ; or if we know, do not wish 
to tell. 

3. By this means, also, we have a variety, and of course, a choice 
of expression, and may, at pleasure, use that which to us appears the 
most perspicuous, convenient, or elegant. 

374. Intransitive verbs can have no distinction of 
voice, because they have no object which can be used as 
the subject in the passive. Their form is generally active ; 
as, " I stand ;" " I run? A few are used also in the pas- 
sive form, but with the same sense as in the active ; as, 



92 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

" He is come ; " They are gone f equivalent to, " He has 
come f " They have gone." 

375. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered 
transitive, and so capable of a passive form — 

1. By the addition of another word : thus, " I laugh" 
is intransitive ; " I laugh at (him) " is transitive ; passive, 
"He is laughed at (by me)." 

In parsing such examples, it is generally better, in the active voice, 
to parse the words separately — laugh, as an intransitive verb, and at 
as a preposition, followed by its object ; but, in the passive voice, they 
must be parsed together as one word — a transitive verb, in the passive 
voice. 

2. Intransitive verbs become transitive, when followed 
by a noun of similar signification as the object ; as, intran- 
sitive, " I run ;" transitive, active, " I run a race ;" passive, 
" A race is run by me/ 5 

3. Intransitive verbs become transitive, when used in a 
Causative sense ; that is, when they denote the causing 
of that act or state which the verb properly expresses ; as, 
" Walk your horse round the yard." — " The proprietors run 
a stage-coach daily." Passively, " Your horse ivas walked 
[made to walk] round the yard " — " A stage-coach is run 
[made to run] daily by the proprietors" Intransitive- 
verbs, used in this way, are called Causatives. 

4. Many verbs in the active voice, by an idiom peculiar to the 
English, are used in a sense nearly allied to the passive, but for which 
the passive will not always be a proper substitute. Thus, we say, 
" This field ploughs well " — " These lines read smoothly " — " This 
fruit tastes bitter " — " Linen wears better than cotton." The idea 
here expressed is quite different from that expressed by the passive 
form : " This field is well ploughed " — " These lines are smoothly 
read." Sometimes, however, the same idea is expressed by both 
forms ; thus, " Wheat sells readily," or, " is sold readily at an advanced 
price." (Expressions of this kind are usually made in French by the 
reflected verb ; thus, Ce champ se laboure Men," — " Ces lignes se 
lisent aisement "). When used in this sense, they may properly be 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — MOODS. 93 

ranked with intransitive verbs, as they are never followed by an ob- 
jective case. 

Moods. 

376. Mood is the mode or manner of expressing 
the signification of the verb. 

377. In English Grammar, the moods are six; 
namely, the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, 
Imperative, Infinitive, and Participial. 

378. The Indicative mood declares the fact 
expressed fay the verb, simply and without limita- 
tion ; as, "He is," — "He loves," — "He is loved" 
(486, 494, 507.) 

379. In other words, the indicative mood attributes to 
its subject the act, being or state, expressed by the verb, 
simply and without limitation. 

380. The Potential mood declares, not the fact 
expressed by the verb, but only its possibility, or 
the liberty, power, will, or obligation, of the subject 
with respect to it; as, "The wind may blow" — 
"We may walk" — "I can swim" — "He would 
not stay " — " Children should obey their parents. " 

In other words, the potential mood expresses, not what 
the subject does, or is, etc., but what it may, can, must, 
might, could, ivould, or should do, or be, etc. 

381. The auxiliaries may, can, etc., in the potential mood, in all 
probability, were at first independent verbs in the indicative, fol- 
lowed by the verb in the infinitive, without the sign to before it, 
as it is now used after such verbs as see, hear, feel, let, etc. (877). This 
is apparent when we consider that, "I can go"—' 1 1 am able to go," 
etc. Grammarians now generally combine them as one word, con- 
stituting a particular form of the verb, to which (from its leading use) 
they have given the name of 'potential mood. The indicative and poten- 
tial both declare, but they declare different things ; the former declares 
what the subject does, or is ; the latter what it may or can, etc., do or 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

be. The declaration made by the indicative is simple ; that made by 
the potential is always complex, containing the idea of liberty, power, 
etc., in connection with the act." " He writes" is the indicative of the 
verb to write. " He can write" is the indicative of the verb can, with 
the infinitive to write j or, combined, the potential of the verb to write" 
382. Both the indicative and the potential mood are used inter- 
rogatively ; as, " Does he love ?" — " Can he write V They are also nsed 
without dependence on another verb, and express a complete idea in 
themselves. " James writes a letter," and " James can write a letter," 
are equally complete and independent sentences. 

383. The Subjunctive mood represents the fact 
expressed hj the verb, not as actual, "but as con- 
ditional, desirable, or contingent ; as, if he study, he 
will improve." — " O that thou wert as my brother ?" 

384. This mood, as its name implies, is always subjoined to and 
dependent on another verb expressed or understood. " If he study, 
he will improve" — " O (I wish) that thou wert," etc. 

385. The idea of contingency, expressed by the subjunctive 
mood, is rather a relation of syntax than a distinct mood of the 
verb (390). (See, also, 391). 

386. The subjunctive mood differs in form from the indicative in 
the present tense only ; in the verb to be, in the present and past. 

387> Both the indicative and the potential, with a conjunctive 
particle prefixed, are used subjunctively ; that is, they are used to 
express what is conditional, or contingent, and with dependence on 
another verb ; as, " If he sleeps, he will do well " — " He would go if 
he could " (go). 

388. In parsing, that only should be called the subjunctive mood 
which has the subjunctive form. When the indicative or potential is 
used subjunctively, it should be so stated. 

389. The conditionality or contingency, etc., expressed by this 
mood, is usually intimated by such conjunctions as if, though, lest, 
unless, so, etc., prefixed, which, however, make no part of the verb. 

390. The same thing is sometimes expressed without the con- 
junction, by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject 
or nominative ; as, "Had I" for "If I had" "Were he," for "If he 
were » — "Had he gone," for "If he had gone " — " Would he but reform" 
for " If he would but reform, etc. 

391. The subjunctive present is only an abbreviated 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — MOODS. 05 

form of the future indicative, or the past potential, and the 
supplement may always be made ; thus, " If he study" 
etc., that is, " If he shall (or should) study? etc. — " Though 
he [should] come," etc. Instead of the regular form of the 
past indicative, usage has sanctioned a peculiarly distinct 
form of the verb to be, in the past tense ; as, " If I were, 
for " If I should." For though we might say, " If I should 
be," for " If I be," yet we can not saj^, " If I should were ;" 
and there are some cases in which the present subjunctive 
form seems to be indispensable ; as, " See that thou do it 
not " — " If he do but try, he will succeed." Still — 

391, The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now falling 
greatly into disuse. The tendency appears to be to lay it aside, and 
to use the indicative or potential in its stead, wherever it can be done. 
According to rule, the subjunctive form is used only when it has a 
future reference ; as, " If he come [viz., at a future time] he will be 
welcome." The same idea is expressed by saying, " If he comes '> 
(406), " If he shall come " — or, " If he should come" — and one or other 
of these expressions is now generally preferred to the subjunctive. 
Formerly, in cases of supposition, the present subjunctive was used, 
whether it had a future reference or not ; as, " Though God be high, 
yet hath he respect to the lowly." In all such expressions, accord- 
ing to present usage, the present indicative would be used ; thus, 
' Though God is high, etc. 

392. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits ; as, " Do this" — " Remember 
thy Creator" — "Hear, O my people" — "Go thy 
way" (467). 

3,93. The Infinitive mood expresses the meaning 
of the vert) in a general manner, without any dis- 
tinction of person or number ; as, to love. 

394. The infinitive is often used as a verbal noun (866, 
867) in the nominative case, as the subject of the verb ; as 
" To play is pleasant." Or, in the objective, as the ob- 
ject of a transitive verb in the active toice, or of a prepo- 



96 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

sition ; as, " Boys love to play " " He is about to go " — 
" What went ye out for to see?" (867). 

395* 1. The infinitive mood has always a subject, expressed or 
■understood ; yet the act, being, or state, expressed by it, is sometimes 
so general that it is unimportant to ascertain its subject, or impossible 
to designate any particular person or thing as such. Thus, in the 
above examples, to play is referable to boys ; to go is the act of he, 
etc. 

2. When the infinitive as a subject has its own subject, it is in the 
objective case, introduced by for ; as, " For us to lie, is base." But 
when the infinitive with its subject is the object of a transitive verb, 
that subject in the objective case needs no connecting word ; as, " We 
believe him to be sincere." Here him is the subject of to be, and the 
whole clause " him to be sincere "=" that he is sincere " is the object 
of "believe 99 (872). 

396. The infinitive active, by an anomaly not uncommon in other 
languages, is sometimes used in a passive sense ; as, " You are to 
blame 9 ' (to be blamed) — "A house to let" — "A road to make" — 
" Goods made to sell " — " Knives to grind, etc. 

397 • The Participial mood is used to denote 
action or state ; 1. As continuing or incomplete ; 2. 
As complete or finished without regard to time. 

It is always used in connection with another verb, as an 
attribute of its subject, or a limiter of its object, as, " I am 
writing " — " I saw him running " — " The letter is written 
(See 452, et seq.). 

Tenses* 

398* Tenses are certain forms of the verb which 
serve to point out the distinctions of time. 

399. Time is naturally divided into the past, the present, and the 
future. The past includes all that goes before the present ; the future 
includes all that comes after the present ; and the present, strictly 
speaking, is the point in which the past and future meet, and which has 
itself, no space or continuance. In grammar, however, the present is 
not regarded in this strict sense, but as extending to a greater or less 
period of which the passing instant forms a part ; as, this moment, 



ETYMOIiOGY — YEBB5 — TENSES. 97 

hour, day, week, etc. In each of these an act, etc., may be expressed 
either simply and indefinitely as present, or definitely as completed ; 
and these are expressed by different forms of the verb called tenses. 
Hence — 

400. The tenses in English are six— the Present, 
the Present-perfect, the Past, the Past-perfect, 
the Future and the Future-perfect.* 

£01. Of these, the present and the past, in the indica- 
tive mood, and the present in the subjunctive, are simple 
tenses, consisting of the verb only ; as, " I love " — " I loved? 
All the rest are compound, consisting of the auxiliary and 
the verb ; as, " I have loved? 

Remark. — The indicative mood alone has all the tenses, and in it 
alone are the distinctions of timo strictly indicated, 

The tenses may be represented to the eye by the following diagram : 

Definite Past Time. Definite Future Time. 

A Present. A 



Past-Perfect. 



Present-perfect* A Future-perfect* 



Fast. 



Future* 



TEASES OE THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

402. The Present tense expresses what is going on 
at the present time ; as " I love " — "I am loved? 



* The past tense in English, does not correspond to the imperfect 
in Latin or Greek, bnt rather to the Greek Aorist. There is, there- 
fore, no propriety in retaining the name imperfect. The Latin im- 
perfect corresponds precisely to the past-progressive in English (506). 
So also, the present-perfect does not correspond precisely to the Latin 
perfect, as that is nsed in an indefinite sense, like the Greek Aorist, 
and also in a definite sense, like the English present-perfect. The 
past-yerfect corresponds to the pluperfect in Latin, The future and 
the future-perfect in English correspond to the tenses of the same 
name in Latin. See Latin Grammar, § 44. B. and M., 260, 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4:08. Tins tense is used also to express what is habitual, or always 
true ; as, " He goes to church " — " Virtue is its own reward " — " Vice 
'produces misery." 

404. It is used, in animated narration, to express past events with 
force and interest, as if they were present ; as, Caesar leaves Gaul, 
crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy " (1046, 5). 

4:05, It is used sometimes, instead of the present-perfect tense, in 
speaking of authors long since dead, when reference is made to their 
works which still exist, as, " Moses tells us who were the descendants 
of Abraham "— " Virgil imitates Homer ;" instead of " has told" "has 
imitated" 

406. It is used in dependent clauses after such words as when, 
before, if as soon as, after, till, and also after relative pronouns, to 
express .the relative time of a future action, that is of an action future 
at the time of speaking, but which will be present at the time refer- 
red to ; as, " When he comes, he will be welcome " — " We shall get 
our letters as soon as the post arrives " — " He will kill every ono 
[whom] he meets," etc. 

" No longer mourn for me when I am dead."— Shakes. 

407. The Present-perfect tense represents an 
action or event as completed at the present time, or in a 
period of which the present forms a part ; as, " I Jmve sold 
my horse "— " I have walked six miles to-day " — " John has 
teen busy this week "— " Many good books have been pub- 
lished this century." See 912. 

408. The sign of the present-perfect is have — inflected, have, hast, 
has, or hath. 

409. In the use of this tense, it matters not how long ago the act 
referred to may have been performed, if it was in a period reaching 
to and embracing the present ; as, " Many discoveries in the arts 
have been made since the days of Bacon;" that is, in the period 
reaching from that time to the present. On the other hand, if the 
time of an act mentioned is past, and does not include the present, 
this tense can not be used, however near the time may be. Thus, we 
can not properly say, " I have seen your friend a moment ago ;" but, 
" I saw your friend," etc. 

410. This tense is used to express an act or state continued 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSES. 99 

through a period of time reaching to the present ; as, " He has 
studied grammar six months " — " He has been absent [now] six years." 

4:11, It is used to express acts long since completed, when the 
reference is not to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished and 
still existing ; as, " Cicero has written orations " — " Moses has told us 
many important facts in his writings " — " Of old thou hast laid the 
foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the work of thy hand." 
But if the thing completed does not now exist, or if the reference is 
to the act of finishing and not to the present continuance of the thing 
finished, this tense can not be used ; thus, we can not say, " Cicero 
has written poems," because no such productions now remain. Nor, 
" In the beginning God has created the heavens," because reference is 
only to the act of God at a certain past time indicated by the words 
" In the beginning." 

£12. It is used in the same manner as the present (406), instead of 
the future-perfect, to represent an action, etc., as perfect at a future 
time ; as, " The cock shall not crow, till thou hast denied me thrice." 

413. Sometimes this tense is used in effect to deny the present 
existence of that which the verb expresses the completion ; as, " I 
have been young " — meaning, this is now finished — " I am young no 
more." 

414. This tense corresponds to the Latin perfect definite. 

415. The Past tense expresses what took place in 
past time ; as, " In the beginning God created the heavens." 
— " God said, Let there be light." — " The ship sailed when 
the mail arrived" See 913. 

416. 1. The time expressed by this tense is regarded as entirely 
past , and, however near to the present, it does not embrace it ; as, " I 
saw your friend a moment ago ; " I wrote yesterday." 

2. In such expressions as " I wrote this morning " — " this week " — 
" this year" etc., the reference is to a point of time now entirely past, 
in these yet unfinished periods. 

417. The past tense never indicates, of itself, without a limiting 
word, any definite time. 

418. This tense is used to express what was customary in past 
time ; as, " She attended church regularly all her life." 

419. The Past-perfect tense represents an action 



100 ENGLISH GUAM MAE. 

or event as completed at or before a certain past time ; as, 
" I had walked six miles that day " — " John had been busy 
that week " — " The ship had sailedwhen the mail arrived " 
— that is, the ship sailed before the mail arrived. See 914, 
915. 

4:20. The sign of the past-perfect is had ; second person, hadst. 
This tense corresponds to the Latin pluperfect. 

421. The Future tense expresses what will take 
take place in future time; as, "I will see you again, and 
your hearts shall rejoice" 

422. The signs of the future are shall, will, 

423. The Future-perfect tense intimates that an 
action or event will be completed at or before a certain time 
yet future; as, "I shall have got my lesson by ten o'clock " 
— "He will have finished his letter before you are ready." 

424. The signs of the future-perfect are sliall have, will ham. 

TEASES OF THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 

425. The Potential has four tenses — called the 
Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, and the 
Past-perfect. 

426. The Present potential expresses present liberty, 
power, or obligation. 

427* The signs of the Present are may, can, must. 

428. The Present-perfect, in this mood, does not 
correspond in meaning to the same tense in the indicative, 
But more properly expresses present possibility, liberty, 
necessity, etc., with respect to an act or state supposed to be 
past; thus, "He may have written," means, It is possible 
that he wrote, or has written ; " He must have written," 
means, " It must be that he wrote, or has written. 

429. The signs of the Present-perfect potential are, may have, 
can have, must have. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TEKSES, 101 

d30. The Past potential is very indefinite with respect 
to time, being used to express liberty, ability, purpose, or 
duty, sometimes with regard to what is past, sometimes 
with regard to what is present, and sometimes with regard 
to what is future ; thus — 

Past — " He could not do it then, for he was otherwise 
engaged" 

Present — " I would do it with pleasure now, if I could. 39 
Picture — "If he would delay his journey a few days, 
I might [could, would, or should'] accompany him." 

431. The signs of the Past potential are, might, could, would, 
should. 

432. The Past-perfect potential, also, never corres- 
ponds in time to the past-perfect indicative ; that is, it never 
represents an act, etc., as completed at a certain past time, 
but expresses the liberty, ability, purpose, or duty, with 
respect to the act or state expressed by the verb, as now 
past ; thus, " He could have tvriiten," means, He was able 
to write. 

4:33. The signs of the Past-perfect potential are, might have, 
could have, would have, should have. 
434. The Future and Future-perfect are wanting in the Potential. 

TEKSES OE THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

4.35. The Subjunctive mood, in its proper form, 
has only the Present tense. 

The verb " to be " has the present and the past. The indicative 
mood used subjunctively (387), furnishes what may be called a second 
form of the present subjunctive, and the only form of the other sub- 
junctive tenses. 

436. The Present subjunctive, in its proper form, 
according to present approved usage, has always a fu- 
ture reference; that is, it denotes a present uncertainty 
or contingency respecting a supposed future action or 



102 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

event ; thus, " If he write" is equivalent to, " If lie should 
write/' or, " If he shall write."* 

437* Uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed present 
action or state, is expressed by the present indicative used subjunc- 
tively ; as ; " If be writes as well as be reads, be will succeed." 

£38. The Present-perfect subjunctive is only the same tense 
of the indicative, used subjunctively. Such expressions as " If she 
have brought up children, etc. (1 Tim. v. 10), are now obsolete. 

439* The Past subjunctive is used in two senses — 

1. It is used to express a past action or state as condi- 
tional or contingent; as, "If he wrote that letter he de- 
serves credit, and should be rewarded ; " If he was at home, 
I did not know it." 

2. It expresses a supposition with respect to something 
present, and implies a denial of the thing supposed; as, 
"If I had the money now, I would pay it," implying, I 
have it not. Used in this way, the verb " to le " (and of 
course the passive voice of transitive verbs) has a separate 
form in the singular, but not in the plural, viz., I were, 
thou wert, he were ; for I was, thou wast, he was : thus, 
" If my kingdom were of this world, then would my ser- 
vants fight," implying, It is not of this world ; " that 
thou wert as my brother," implying, " thou art not " 

440. In this way, the Past subjunctive seems to be always used 
when the conjunctive term is omitted, and the verb or auxiliary is 



* From this usage, this may properly be regarded as an elliptical 
form of the future, or of the past potential, in a future sense, the 
signs shall or should being omitted. The forms of the present sub- 
junctive were formerly used in the indicative, both in declarative 
and conditional clauses, where the present usage would require the 
present indicative ; thus, " Though the Lord be [is] high," etc. — Ps. 
cxxxviii. 6.—" If thou be [art] the Son of Gto&."—Matth. iv. 3, 6.— 
" That which thou so west is not quickened except it die [dies]." — 
1 Cor. xv. 36.—" Whether he be [is] a sinner or not, I know not"— 
John ix. 25, etc. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TEHSES, 103 

placed before its subject (390) ; as, " Hadst thou been here, my brother 
had not [would not have (358) ] died." 

4:4:1. When a supposition, etc., respecting something past, is ex- 
pressed in this way, the Past-perfect must be used ; as, " If I had had 
the money yesterday, I would have paid it," implying, I had it not ; 
*" that thou hadst been as my brother," implying "thou wast not." 

4:42. Though the past tense, used in this way, refers to a present 
act or ^tate, yet, as it has the past form, it should, in parsing, be 
called the past tense. 

TEXSE OF THE IMPERATIVE MOOD, 

443. The Imperative mood has only the present 
tense, and that has respect to the time of the com- 
mand, exhortation^ etc. 

The doing of the thing commanded, must, of course, he 
subsequent to the command requiring it. 

TEKSES OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

444. The Infinitive mood has two tenses, the 
Present and the Perfect.* 

These do not so properly denote the time of the action, 
etc., as its state (446 and 449) ; as, u To write " — " To have 
written." 

445. In the other moods the time expressed by the tenses, is 
estimated from the time of speaking, which is always regarded as 
present ; as, " I wrote " (that is, in a time now past), " I write " (that 
is, in time now present), " I shall write " (that is, in time now future). 
But the infinitive represents the action or state expressed as present, 
not, however, always at the time of speaking, but at the time indi- 
cated by the preceding verb, or some other word in the sentence ; as, 
" lie wishes to write " — now-— to-morrow — next week, etc. ; " He wished 



* The word present is omitted before perfect, in designating this 
tense in the infinitive and participles, because the reference in these 
is only to the state of the act, etc., and not particularly to the present 
time (455). 



104 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to write "—then (viz,, at tlie time of wishing, n&w past)— next day—* 
this day—to-morrow, etc.; "He wOl wish to write" — then (viz., at 
the time of wishing, now future)— next day, etc. Hence the following 
definitions .:— 

446*— 1st. The- Present infinitive expresses an act- or 
state as incomplete, or indefinite, or as taking place at a 
time indicated by some other word, or at any time referred 
to, expressed or implied ; as, " I wish to write " — " I wished 
to go"— "Apt to teach" 

447 » The sign of the present infinitive 5s, to (549). 

4:4:8 • After the verb to be, the present infinitive is sometimes used 
to express a future action or event ; as, " He is to go;" " If he were 
to go;' etc. (876-8). 

449* — 2d. The Perfect infinitive expresses an act or 
state as perfect or finished, at any time referred to, ex- 
pressed or implied; as, "He is said to have written" — 
already— yesterday— a year ago, etc. 

4&® 9 The sign of the perfect infinitive is, to have. 

4i$l* In the use of the infinitive it is necessary to observe, that 
the Present must never be used in circumstances which imply a 
finished act ; nor the Perfect in circumstances which imply an act 
not finished. Thus, it is improper to say, " He is said to write yester- 
day 5 " because the language leads to regard the act as finished, since 
it took place in past time. It should be, " To have written yesterday " 
(921). Nor can we say, "I hoped — I desired— I intended, etc. — to 
Jiave written yesterday/' because an act regarded as perfect or finished, 
the doing of which, of course, is past, can not be the object of hope, 
desire, intention? etc We should say, " I hoped to write yesterday " 
(920). 

PARTICIPIAL M00X> OR PARTICIPLES. 

452* The Participial mood or participle <> ex- 
presses the action or state of the verb, not asser- 
tively, font attributively. It has also the character 
of the adjective, and as such qualifies its subject : 
"The man came seeing'*' — " Having finished our 
task, we m&yplay" See 494, 507. 



ETYMOLOGY — PARTICIPLES. 105 

4:53, Participles are so called, because they belong partly to the 
verb, and partly to the adjective. From the former, they have signifi- 
cation, voice, and tense ; and they perform the office of the latter. 

454. Verbs have three participles — the present, the 

past, and the perfect ; as, loving, loved, having loved, in 
the active yoice; and being loved, loved, having been loved, 
in the passive. See 494, 507. 

455. The participles, taken by themselves, like the infinitive, do 
not so properly denote the time of an action, as its state ; while 
the time of the act, whether progressive or finished, is indicated by 
the verb with which it is connected, or by some other word ; thus, 
" I saw him writing yesterday ;" " I see him writing now ;" "I will 
see him writing to-morrow." In all these examples, writing expresses 
an act present, and still in progress at the time referred to ; but with 
respect to the time of speaking, the act of writing, expressed in the 
first example, is past ; in the second, it is present ; and in the third, 
it is future, as indicated by the accompanying verbs, saw, see, will see. 

456. The Present participle active ends always 
in ing. In all verbs it has an active signification, and de- 
notes an action or stute as continuing and progressive ; as, 
"James is building a house." In some verbs, it has also a 
passive progressive signification ; as, " The house is build- 
ing/ 9 Appendix IX. 

457. This passive usage, some suppose, has its origin in 
the use of the verbal noun after in, to express the same 
idea ; thus, " Forty and six years was this temple in build- 
ing;" "And the house when it was in building was built 
of stone made ready — so that there was neither hammer 
nor axe heard in the house, while it was in building" In 
the absence of emphasis, the in being indistinctly uttered, 
came to be spoken, and consequently to be written, a ; as, 
" While the ark was a preparing " (1 Pet. iii. 20), and 
finally to be omitted altogether. Similar changes of pre- 
positions we have in the expressions, a going, a running, a 
hunting, a fishing, etc. Others, again, suppose that this 
ought to be regarded as an original idiom of the language, 



106 ENGLISH GRAIMAE. 

similar to the passive use of the infinitive active noticed 
before (396). But whether either of these is the true ac- 
count of this matter or not, the fact is certain. It is there- 
fore the duty of the grammarian to note the fact, though 
he may be unable to account for it. The following are 
examples: "This new tragedy was acting."— K Everett. 
"An attempt was making." — D. Webster. "The fortress 
was building" etc. — Irving. 

458. The Present participle passive has always 
a passive signification, but it has the same difference of 
meaning with respect to the time or state of the action as 
the present indicative passive (509). 

459. The Past Participle denotes an action ox state 
as completed. 

It has the same form in both voices. In the active voice, it belongs 
equally to transitive and intransitive verbs — has always an active 
sense — forms, with the auxiliaries, the Present-perfect and Past-per- 
fect tenses — and is never found but thus combined ; as, has loved" 
had loved" etc. In the passive voice it has always a passive sense, and, 
with the verb to be as an auxiliary forms the passive voice ; as, " He 
is loved ;" or without it, qualifies a noun or pronoun ; as, " A man 
loved by all, hated by none." The difference between the active and 
the passive participle will be seen in the following examples, viz. : 
Active : " He has concealed a dagger under his cloak ; Passive : He 
has a dagger concealed under his cloak. 

460. The Perfect participle is always compound (477)> 
and represents an action or state as completed at the time 
referred to. 

It has always an active sense in the active voice, and a passive sense 
in the passive ; as, Active : Having finished our task, we may play. 
Passive : Overtask having been finished, we may play." 

461. The Present participle active, and the past participle 
passive, when separated from the idea of time, become ad- 
jectives, and are usually called participial adjectives ; as, 
"An amusing story 7 ' — "A bound book" (206-iv). 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TEASES. 107 

462. The Particle in ing is often used as a verbal noun 
(107-5), having the nominative and the objective, but not 
the possessive. In this character the participle of a transi- 
tive verb may still retain the government of the verb ; as, 
"In keeping his commandments there is a great reward f or, 
it may be divested of it by inserting an article before it, and 
the preposition of after it; as, "In the keeping o/his com- 
mandments." When of follows the participle, the or a {an) 
should precede it (899.) But o/can not be used before an- 
other preposition. 

£63. So also the perfect participle ; as, "There is satisfaction in 
Thawing done well " — " His having done his duty, was, afterward, a 
source of satisfaction {894, 896), 

Number and, Person. 

464. Every tense of the verb has two Numbers, the 
lingular and the Plural, corresponding to the singu- 
lar and plural of nouns and pronouns. The singular as- 
serts of one ; the plural of more than one. 

465. In each number, the verb has three Persons, 
called the first, second, and third. The first asserts 
of the person speaking j the second of the person spoken 
to ; and the third of the person, or thing spoken of 

Number and person, as applied to verbs, indicate only 
the form to be used with each number and person of the 
subject 

466. The subject of the verb, in the first person sin- 
gular, is always I, in the plural, we ; in the second per- 
son singular, thou, in the plural, ye or you ; in the 
third person, the subject is the name of any person, 
or thing spohen of, or a pronoun of the third person 
in its stead; also, it may be an infinitive mood, or a clause 
of a sentence, or anything of which a person can think or 
speak (762), 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

46T* In ordinary discourse, the imperative mood 
baa only the second person* because a command, exhorta- 
tion, etc., can be addressed only to the person or persons 
spoken to. 

4:68. In such expressions as " Let us love " — " Let Mm love " — 
"Let them love" — phrases by which the first and the third person of 
the imperative in some languages are rendered — let is the proper 
imperative, in the second person, with thou or ye as its subject under- 
stood, and love the infinitive without the sign (877). Thus, " Let \thou\ 
us [to] love, etc. 

<&(*&* This mode of expression is sometimes used, even when no 
definite individual is addressed ; as, " Let there be light." 

4:70, Among the poets, however, we sometimes find a first and a 
third person in the imperative ; as, " Confide we in ourselves alone." 
" With virtue be we armed/' — JHuntf 8 Tamo. " And rest we here, Ma- 
tilda said/'— Scott. 

" Fad-he that must beneath his rival's arm, 
And live the rest secure from future harm/ 5 — Pope. 

471* Such expressions as u Hallowed be thy name "-—" Thy king- 
dom come"— "Be it enacted" — "So be it," etc., maybe regarded 
either as examples of the third person in the imperative, or as ellip- 
tical tot "-May;" or, "Let thy name be hallowed" — "Let it be 
enacted " — " Let it be so," etc. 

472* The infinitive does not change its form, whatever the 
number, person, or case of its subject, and is said, therefore, to have 
neither number nor person. 



Conjugation of tlie Verb. 

473. The conjugation of the verb is tlie regu- 
lar combination and arrangement of its several 
voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons* 

* Inflection, properly speaking, is the making of those changes of 
form which the verb undergoes in its several parts ; Conjugation is 
the combining or arranging of these forms in the several voices,, 
moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, to which they belong. Both are 
usually included under the term conjugation. 



ETYMOLOGY — VEUBS — CONJUGATION. 



109 



Table of the Verb* 



{TRANSITIVE. 
INTRANSITIVE. 
ATTRIBUTIVE. 



C Active* 
( Passive. 



J 



Lfc 



REGULAR 

< IRREGULAR. 

[ DEFECTIVE 



r Indicative. 



Potential. 

Subjunctive. 
Imperative. 
Infinitive. 



^Participial. 



ipial. 1 



f Present. 
Present-perfect. 
Past 

Past-perfect. 
Future. 
Future-perfect. 

{Present. 
Present-perfect. 
Past. 
Past-perfect 
j Present. 
1 Past. 
Present, 

! Present. 
Perfect. 
Present 
Past 
Perfect 



► f Sing. 
r 1 Plur. 



la 



Pers. 

2 Pers. 

3 Pers. 



4:74:. Note.-— The simple verb has only four forms, and every 
compound tense may be analyzed, and each of its parts be referred to 
one of these, and its force and meaning determined. The relation of 
the auxiliary to the principal verb properly belongs to syntax. The 
simple forms are as follows : 

Regular. — 1. Love. 2. Loving. 3. Loved. 4. Loved. 
Ibregulae.—I. Write. 2. Writing. 3. Wrote. 4. Written. 

1. The first form, love, is used : 1. To assert ; as, I love. 2. With do, 
emphatic ; as, I d o low. 3. In infinitive, connected with to ; I desire 
to love. 4. To command ; love thou. 

2. The second form is used : 1. Either to limit its subject ; as, " He 
coming in fell down, etc. ; or, 2. In predication after the verb to 
be ; He is coming (progressive form of the verb). 

3. The third form is the past tense. 

4. The fourth form is used : 1. Actively after Tioyve, to denote that 
the actor is in possession of (has, owns, by having performed) the 
act expressed by the verb. 2. Passively ; (1) In predication, after the 
verb to be, to express the receiving of the act by the subject ; as, " He 
is loved (passive voice) ; (2) To limit a noun (its own subject, used as 
the subject or object of another verb ; as, u Admired by all lie became 



110 ENGLISH GRAM MAE, 

Established usage, however, renders it desirable to present the or- 
dinary tables, without change of nomenclature* 

4:75. In the active voice, most verbs have two forms— -the Com* 
fnon and the Progressive, and in some tenses, the Interroga- 
tive and JSmpIiatic—Bee Appendix IX, I. 

1. The Common form expresses the simple existence 
of the fact; as* "He speaks" — "She writes" — "They 
talk" 

2. The Progressive form represents an action as 
begun, and in progress, but not completed. It is formed 
by annexing the present participle to the verb " to be" 
through all its moods and tenses; as, "I am writing" 
etc., (506), 

3. In the present and the past indicative, et&, 
the Emphatic form is used to express a fact with em- 
phasis or force. It is formed by prefixing to the verb the 
auxiliary do, in the present tense, and did in the past } as 
"I do write "— " I did write." The other tenses, and alsb 
the progressive form and passive voice, are rendered em- 
phatic, by placing emphasis on the auxiliary ; as, " I have 
written " — " I am writing "—" The letter is written." 

4. The Interrogative form usually transposes the 
order of the auxiliary ; as, " Have I written ? " and in the 
present and past indicative uses do and did; as, " Do I 
write, did I write ? " 

476. To these may be added, the solemn form of the third per- 
son singular, present indicative, ending in th 9 or eth 9 instead of the 
common, insoves. Thus— solemn form, loveth, hath loved; common, 
loves, has loved. 

477. The tenses of the verb, inflected without an aux- 
iliary, are called Simple tenses; those inflected with an 
auxiliary placed before the past participle, are called Com- 
pound tenses. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. Ill 

478. The only regular terminations added to verbs 
are — 

1. The tense endings : ed of the past tense and 
past participle (326 and note) ; and ing in the present 
participle. 

2. TJie personal endings: st, or est, of the 

second person singular ; as, lovesl, actest (483) : and s, es, 
or eth, of the third ; as, reads, teaches, or teacheth. The 
other changes are made by auxiliaries. 

479. In the present and the past tense, when st will easily 
coalesce with the final consonant, it is added in the same syllable ; 
as, saidst, lovedst. But when it will not easily coalesce, or the verb 
ends in a vowel sound, est is commonly added, and forms another 
syUable ; as, wishest, teachest, latest, goest, drawest, safest, vexest, 
blessest, etc." 

480. In the present indicative, the endings of the third person 
singular, s 9 and es, are subject to the rules for the plural number of 
nouns (137-142) ; as, sits, reads, wishes, teaches, loves, goes, draws, 
carries, says, etc. 

4:81. In the solemn style, instead of s 9 or es 9 the third person 
singular has et h, which always adds a syllable, except in doth, hath, 
saith, for doeth, haveth, sayeth. 

482. The verb need is often used in the third person singular 
of the present tense, without the personal ending ; as, " The truth 
need not be disguised " — " It need not be added." 

483. In annexing the tenses and personal endings to the verb, 
the Rules III., IV., and VI., for spelling words (57, 60, 66), must be 
carefully observed. 

484. In the present indicative active, the three persons in the 
plural, and the first in the singular, are alike. In the past tense, the 
three persons in the plural, and the first and third in the singular, are 
all alike, except in the verb " to be" in which the form in the singu- 
lar is different from that of the plural ; thus, singular, was, wast, was 
— plural, were. 

485. The principal parts of the verb are the 



112 EHGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present indicative? the Present participle, 
the Past indicative, and the Past participle. 
In parsing, the mentioning of these parts is called 
conjugating the mrb. Thus : 

Present Present Participle. Fast Past Participle. 
Regular Love, loving, loved, loved. 

Irregular Write, writing, wrote, written. 

Conjugation of the Irregular Verb " To Be." 

486* The irregular and intransitive (or attributive) 
verb "to be" is used as a principal verb, and also as an 
auxiliary in the passive voice, and in the progressive form, 
of the active voice. It is thus inflected through all its 
moods and tenses : — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Present, am. Pres. Part, being. Past, was. Past Part., been. 

Indicative Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am* 1. We are. 

2. Thou art (244). 2. You are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 

PREBENT-PERPECT TENSE. 

Sign, have. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was. 1. We were. 

2. Thou wast. 2. You were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 



* Be, and beest were formerly used in the present indicative ; as* 
" We be true men."-— Bible — for, We are true men. " If thou beest 
he." — Milton. " There be as many miseries beyond riches as on this 
side of them."— Walton, This usage is now obsolete. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERB S — CONJUGATION, 113 





PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 






Sign, had. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I had been. 


1. We had been. 


2. 


Thou hadst been. 


2. You had been. 


3. 


He had been. 


3. They had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 




Signs, shall, wUl. — Inflect with each. 


1. 


I shall be. 


1. We shall be. 


.2, 


Thou shalt be. 


2. You shall be. 



3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been. 

3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been. 

Potential Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
l r I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may have, can have,* or must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. Thou mightst &e. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, would Jbave, should have. 
Inflect with each. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 



Can have, as an auxiliary, is not used in affirmative sentences. 



114 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

Subjunctive Mood (487)* 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If* I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert, or were. 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they wera 

Imperative Mood. 

2, Be, or be thou. 2, Be, or be ye or you. 

Infinitive Mood. 

PKESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To be. To have been. 

Participles. 

Present, Being. Past, Been. Perfect, Having been. 

487. All the tenses of the indicative, and also of the 
potential mood, are used subjunctively, by placing the con- 
junction before them, thus : Present — " If I am/' " If thou 
art," "If he is," etc. (386). Present-perfect—" If I have 
been," etc. Past — " If I was," etc. 

488. The verb to be, followed by an infinitive, forms a 
particular future tense, which often expresses duty, neces- 
sity, or purpose ; as, " Government is to be supported " — 
" We are to pay our debts " — " If we "tSere to depend on 
others "=" If we should depend," etc. (876-3). 

489. This verb* has no progressive form. The em- 



* The conjunctions, if, though, lest, unless, etc., do not form part of 
the subjunctive mood, but are placed before it to express a condition 
or contingency (388). The pupil may go over the indicative, as a 
subjunctive, with one or other of these cobj unctions prefixed. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 115 

phatic form is used only in the imperative ; as, "Do thou 
be"— "Ztoyoube." 

Anomalous Usage. 

4:90. Were is sometimes used for would be; and had been, for 
would have been, as, " This were excellent advice." — Cowley. " It were 
a folly." — Sidney. " My fortune had been Ms, for would have been " 
(358).— Dryden. 

Parsing the Verb* 

491. A verb is parsed by stating its class (tran- 
sitive, intransitive, or attributive)^ its form (regular 
or irregular), conjugating it if irregular* (485), 
and stating its tense, mood, voice, the subject of 
which it affirms, and its person and number ; 
thus, 

" He is wise." — Is is a verb, attributive, irregular — am, being was, 
been — found in the present, indicative, and affirms the attribute, wise, 
of its subject he, in the third person, singular. 

4:92. Besides stating the several properties of the verb, as above, 
the teacher may occasionally require the pupil, as a sort of reviewing 
exercise, to assign a reason for each statement ; thus : — 
" Is — a verb, because it affirms of " He" 

Attributive — it affirms the attribute wise of the subject He. 
Irregular — its past tense and past participle do not end in ed — 

am, being, was, been. 
Present — it refers to present time. 
Indicative — it declares simply, and without limitation. 
Third person — its subject is spoken of. 
/Singular — it asserts of but one, " He." 
As this process would consume much time, it, of course, can not 
often be used, and it is not necessary after the pupil is familiar with 
it, and prompt in assigning the reasons as above. 



* In parsing, it will save time to omit conjugating the verb when 
it is regular, and it is unnecessary, because its being announced to be 
regular sufficiently ascertains its principal parts. All irregular verbs 
should be conjugated as in 513. Every teacher, however, will adopt 
the course which he prefers. 



116 ENGLISH GBAMMAK. 

493. Sentences.— The Subject. 

1. A sentence is an affirmation, and must contain a 
verb in the indicative, potential, or subjunctive mood, by 
which the affirmation is made ; and a subject of which 
the verb affirms. 

This subject is generally a noun or pronoun, in the nominative 
case; thus, the sentence, "God is good," contains an affirmation. 
The verb is affirms of the noun God 9 which is of course its subject, 
and in the nominative case. 

2. Sentences which have the verb in the imperative mood, contain 
a command, exhortation, etc. The subject is that to which the com- 
mand is given (467). 

The subject of a verb, except in the infinitive and participial moods, 
is always in the nominative case. 

When that which is affirmed of a subject in the nominative case, 
is something expressed by a noun or pronoun after the verb to be, 
that noun or pronoun is always in the nominative case, and called 
the predicate-nominative, or nominative after the verb; as, 
" Socrates was a philosopher" Here philosopher is in the predicate- 
nominative, and expresses what the verb "was" affirms of its subject 
"Socrates." See 796. 

EXEECISES. 

1. State the tense, mood, person, and number, of the verb " to be," 
in the following examples; thus, "Am," present, indicative, active, 
first person singular. 

2. Parse all the words. Thus, " Am," a verb, attributive, irregu- 
lar — am, being, was, been — in the present, indicative, active, first 
person, singular :— {491), and the pronouns as directed (253). 

Am ; is ; art ; I was ; we were ; they are ; yon have 
been ; she had been ; he was ; we will be ; they shall be ; 
we had been ; hast been ; hadst been ; wast. 

We may be; they may haye been; he might be; yon 
might have been ; yon must be ; they should have been ; 
if I be ; thou wert ; though he were ; if I had been ; 
though I were ; if we could have been ; they might be. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 117 

Be ; to be ; do thou be ; be ye ; to have been ; being ; 
been ; having been ; be thou. 

Conjugation of the Regular Verb " To Love J 9 

494. The regular transitive verb "To love" is 
inflected through all its moods and tenses as fol- 
lows : — 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, love. Pres. part, loving. Past, loved. Past part, loved. 
Indicative Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE.* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 

3. He loves (or loveth). 3. They love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, have. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved, 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 



*EMPHATIC FORMS. 

PEESENT TENSE. 

1. I do love. 1. We do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does love (or doth love). 3. They do love. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I did love. 1. We did love* 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, hud. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Signs, shall, will.— -Inflect with each. 

1. I shall love. 1. We shall love. 

2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love. 

3. He shall love. 3. They shall love. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall Jiave, will ham.— Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved, 

3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved* 

Potential Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may ham, can ham,* must home. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Signs, might, could, would, should.— Inflect with each. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 



* Can have, as an auxiliary, is not used in affirmative sentences. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 119 
PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, would 7iave, should have. 

Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved* 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 

Subjunctive Mood (4,87). 

PRESENT TENSE (435). 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

Imperative Mood* 

Singular. Plural. 

Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you. 
Emphatic form. 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. 

Infinitive Mood* 

Present, To love. Perfect, To have loved. 

Participles* 

Present, Loving. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having loved. 

495* Preliminary Oral Exercise. 

Review the exercise (324), and then proceed thus : — 
. When you say, " John loves learning," which word expresses what 
John does ? What part of speech are words which express the act of 
a person or thing (314) ? Then what part of speech is loves f Why ? 

Whose act does loves express ? Then what is John to the verb 
loves (315) ? Then John is the subject of loves. 

What is it said that John loves f Learning. What does John do 
to learning ? Of what class are verbs which express what one person 
or thing does to another (317) ? la loves, then, transitive or intransi- 
tive ? Transitive. 

Conjugate love (485). What is its past tense ? — its past participle ? 
In what do they end ? Of what form are verbs which have the past 
tense and the past participle ending in ed (326) ? Then is love regular 
or irregular ? Regular — conjugated, love, loved, loved. 



120 ENGLISH GEAMMAL 

(Do all verbs form tlie past tense and the past participle by adding 
ed ? Let us try. Is it right to say, " I go ?" Would you say, " I 
goed to church yesterday ?" What would you say ? What are those 
verbs called which do not add ed to form the past tense and the past 
participle (327) ? Then is " go " regular or irregular ? Why ?) 

When you say, " John loves learning," does loves express a present, 
a past, or a future act ? When a verb expresses a present act, in what 
tense is it (402) ? In what tense, then, is loves f Present. Why? 

(What would you say, to express the same act as past ? — as future 2 
Then what tense is loved ?—will love?) 

When you say, "John loves learning," do you declare a fact 
simply, or with any limitation ? What mood declares an act simply 
(378) ? Then what mood is loves f Indicative. 

In this sentence, does the subject John act, or is it acted upon ? 
What voice represents the subject as acting (368) 2 Then what voice 
is loves t 

Is John represented here as speaking y spoken to, or spoken off 
What person represents the subject as spoken of (465) 2 Then what 
person is loves f Third person. 

DGes loves assert the act of one person, or of more than one? 
What number asserts of one (464)2 Then what number is loves f 
Singular. 

498 , The facts ascertained by this process will stand in 
order, thus: "Loves" — a verb, transitive, regular, conju- 
gated love, loving, loved, loved — found in the present indica- 
tive, active, third person, singular, and expresses the act of 
"John." See 49L 

4:9 7* This may be extended, by giving the reasons of each state- 
ment, as follows :— 
" Loves "-—a verb, because it expresses an act of its subject (314). 

Transitive, because it expresses an act that passes over from 

the actor, John, to an object, learning (320$.) 
Regular, because its past tense and past participle end in ed. 
Conjugated, love, loving, loved, loved (485). 
Present, — it expresses what John does now (402). 
Indicative, — it expresses the act simply (378). 
Active, — it represents its subject as acting (368). 
Third person, — its subject is spoken of (465). 
Singular, — it asserts of only one (464). 



ETYMOLOGY — VEKBS — CONJUGATION, 121 

EXERCISES — NO. I. 

Inflect the following irregular verbs in the same manner as the 
verb " to love :" — taking care to use the past participle in the com- 
pound tenses (477). 

Present. Past. Past Participle. 

Go went gone 

Write wrote written 

Do did done 

Give gave given 

Have had had 

EXERCISES — NO. II. 

1. In the following exercises, tell the tense, mood, voice, person 
and number, and always in this order, thus " Loves " — Present, indica- 
tive, active, third person, singular. 

2. In the Imperative, omit the tense, and say thus, " Love thou " — ■ 
Imperative, active, second person, singular. 

3. In the Infinitive and Participles, omit the person and number, 
and say thus "To love" — Present, infinitive, active ; " Loving " — Pres- 
ent participle, active. 

N. B. — The pronoun prefixed is no part of the verb, but helps to 
show its person and number. The auxiliaries (or signs, except in a 
a special analysis) are not taken separately, but always with the verb ; 
so that the two words, and sometimes three, as in the future-perfect 
indicative, are parsed together as one word, thus, " Has loved " — the 
present-perfect, indicative, active, third person, singular. 

He loves. — We have loved. — He loved. — They had loved. 
— You shall love. — They may have loved. — We might love. 
— Love thou. — To love. — You had gone. — They will go. — 
To have gone. — We will write. — They may write. — They 
should go. — He has fallen. — You had given. — We might 
have gone. — James has written. — Robert loves to write. — 
To write is useful. — Writing is useful. — Having written. — 
We gave. — They have given. — You will give. 

The Objective Case. 
408. A transitive verb, in the active voice, tells what 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

its subject does to some other person or thing. That per- 
son or thing is the object of the verb, and is in the o&- 
jective case. Thus, " He loyes us ;" loves is a transitive 
verb in the active voice, and tells what its subject lie, does 
to us. Us, then, is its object, and is in the objective case. 
See also 320. 

1. In the following exercises, tell which words are verbs, and why ; 
whether transitive or intransitive, and why ; what is the subject, and 
why ; and if transitive, what is their object, and why. 

2. Conjugate the verbs, and tell their tense, mood, voice, person, 
and number ; thus, " Loves " — Verb, transitive, regular — love, loving, 
loved, loved — the present, indicative, active, third person, singular. 

He loves us. — I will love him. — Good boys study their 
lessons. — Children love play. — God created the world. — Ee- 
member thy Creator. — Do good to all men. — Forgive your 
enemies. — He that giveth to the poor (201) lendeth to the 
Lord. — You should study grammar. — We should read the 
best books. — Bad books injure the character. — War makes 
rogues, and peace hangs them. — Children, obey your pa- 
rents. — A good cause makes a strong arm, — Show mercy, 
and thou shalt find it. 

EXERCISES — 1*0. III. 
PARSING. 

In the preceding exercises (498), parse each word in order ; the 
noun, as directed, (182) ; the article, as directed (194) ; the adjective, as 
directed (225) ; the pronoun, as directed (253) ; and the verb, as 
directed (491 or 496). Or, more fully, as an occasional exercise (492 
or 497), thus: 
" Loves " — a verb, because it expresses an act, viz., of he. 

transitive, because it has an object, us (498). 

regular, — its past tense and past participle end in ed; 

conjugated, love, loving, loved, loved. 

present, because the act takes place in present time. 

indicative, — it declares the fact simply. 

third person, — its subject, he, is spoken of. 

singular, — it asserts of but one, 



ETYMOLOGY — YEEBS — CONJUGATION. 123 



Negative Form of the Verb* 

499. The verb is made to deny by placing the word not 
after the simple form ; as, " Thou lovest not ;" and between 
the auxiliary and the verb in the compound form; as, " I 
do not love." When two auxiliaries are used, it is placed 
between them ; as, " I would not have loved." 

500. In the infinitive and participles, the negative is 
put first; as, "Not to love »—« Not loving "— " Not loved." 

501. The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the 
present and past tenses, the compound or emphatic form is more 
common. The following synopsis will show the manner of using 
the negative : — 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 

Pres.-Perf. 

Past. 

Past-Perf. 

Future. 

Fut.-Perf. 



1. I do not love. 
1. I have not loved. 
1. I did not love. 
1. I had not loved. 
1. I will not love. 
1. I shall not have 
loved. 



2. Thou dost not love, etc. 
2. Thou hast not loved, etc. 
2. Thou didst not love, etc. 
2. Thou hadst not loved, etc. 
2. Thou wilt not love, etc. 
2. Thou shalt not have loved, 
etc. 



Present. 
Pres.-Perf. 1. I may not have 
loved. 
I might not love. 
I might not have 
loved. 



Past. 
Past-Perf. 



Present. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 
1. I can not love. 2. Thou canst not love, etc. 

2. Thou mayst not have loved, 

etc. 
2. Thou mightst not love, etc. 
2. Thou mightst not have 
loved, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). 
1. If I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, etc. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Love not, or do not thou love. 2. Love not, or do not ye love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Not to love. Perfect. Not to have loved. 

PARTICIPLE. 
Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved. 

Perfect. Not having loved. 



124: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Interrogative Form of the Verb. 

502. The verb is made to aslc a question by placing 
the nominative or subject after the simple form; as, 
" Lovest thou ?" and between the auxiliary and the verb in 
the compound forms ; as, "Do I love?" When there are 
two auxiliaries, the nominative is placed between them ; 
as, " Shall I have loved ?" 

503. The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and parti- 
ciples, can not have the interrogative form. 

504. The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. 
The following synopsis will show how how the verb is put into the 
interrogative form :— 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. Do I love ? 2. Dost thou love ? etc. 

Pres.-Perf. 1. Have I loved ? 2. Hast thou loved ? etc. 

Past. 1. Did I love? 2. Didst thou love ? etc. 

Past-Perf. 1. Had I loved ? 2. Hadst thou loved ? etc. 

Future. 1. Shall I love ? 2. Wilt thou love? etc. 

Fut.-Pekf. 1. Shall I have loved ? 2. Wilt thou have loved ? etc. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. 1. May I love ? 2. Canst thou love ? etc. 

Pres.-Perf. 1. May I have loved ? 2. Canst thou have loved ? etc. 

Past. 1. Might I love ? 2. Couldst thou love ? etc. 

Past-Perf. 1. Might I have loved ? 2. Couldst thou have loved ? etc. 

505. Interrogative sentences are made negative by 
placing the negative either before or after the nominative ; 
as, " Do I not love ?" or, " Do not I love ?" 

exercises. 

1. Inflect the verb to love in the negative form. 

2. Inflect the indicative, and potential, in the interrogative form. 

3. Change the exercises (p. 121) into the negative form, and write 
them out. 

4. Change the examples in the indicative and the potential into 
the interrogative form, and write them out. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 125 

Progressive Form of the Active Voice. 

506. The Progressive form of the verb is inflected 
by prefixing the verb to he, through all its moods and tenses, 
to the present participle ; thus: — 

Present. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, etc. 

Pres.-Perf. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing, etc. 
Past. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, etc. 

Past-Perf. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing,etc. 
Future 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, etc. 

Fut.-Perf. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 
been writing. writing, etc. 

Note. — Verbs which in the common form imply continuance, do 
not usually admit the progressive form ; thus, " I am loving " (if 
proper) would mean nothing more than " I love." Appendix IX. 
1, 2. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Change the following verbs from the simple into the progressive 
form; — 

He writes. — They read. — Thou teachest. — We have learn- 
ed. — He had written.— They go. — You will build. — I ran. 
— John has done it. — We taught. — He stands. — He stood. 
— They will stand. — They may read. — We can sew. — You 
should study. — We might have read. 

2. Change the following, from the progressive into the simple 
form : — 

We are writing. — They were singing. — They have been 
riding. — We might be walking. — I may have been sleeping. 
— They are coming. — Thou art teaching. — They have been 
eating. — He has been moving. — We have been defending. 

3. Parse these verbs, in the progressive form ; thus, " We are writ- 
ing " — " are writing " is a verb, transitive, irregular— write, writing, 
wrote, written — in the present, indicative, active, first person, plural* 
progressive form. 

4. Change the exercises, No. 2, into the negative form ; thus, " We 
are not writing ;" — into the interrogative form ; as, "Are we writing ?"- 
— into the negative-interrogative form ; as, " Are we not writing V* or, 
" Are not we writing ?" 



126 ENGLISH GEAMMAB, 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

507. The Passive voice is inflected "by adding the 
past participle to the verb "to be" as an auxiliary, 
through all its moods and tenses thus ; (486) : — 

PEINCIPAL PAKTS. 

Present, Am loved. Present part., Being loved. Past, Was loved. 
Past participle, Loved. 

Indicative Mood. 







PRESENT TENSE. 


1. 

2, 
3. 


Singular. 
I am loved. 
Thou art loved. 
He is loved. 


Plural. 

1. We are loved. 

2. You are loved. 

3. They are loved. 



PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, have. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, had. 

1„ I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 

2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved. 

3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION 127 
FUTURE PEEFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have "been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 

3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved. 

Potential Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must — Inflect with each. 

{Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You my be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may have, can have? or must have.— Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

PAST TENSE, 

Signs, might, could, would, sliould. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

.2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — 
ect with each. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 



' Can have, as an auxiliary, is not used in affirmative sentences. 



128 ENGLISH GRAM MAE. 

Subjunctive Mood (487). 

PEESENT TENSE. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. If* I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 
8. If be be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert or were loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. If lie were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular, Plural. 

2. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present, To be loved. Perfect, To have been loved, 

Participles* 

Present, Being loved. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having been loved, 

Observations on the Passive Voice. 

508 9 1. The passive voice, in the finite moods, properly 
affirms of the subject the receiving of the act performed by 
the actor ; and in all tenses, except the present, expresses 
passively the same thing that is expressed by the same 
tense in the active yoice : thus, " Caesar conquered Gaul," 
and "Gaul was conquered by Caesar," express the same 
thing. Hence, the subject of the verb in the passive voice, 
is the object of the act, i. e., it is acted upon by the actor 
(369). 

2. Every tense of the passive voice may be resolved into 



* The conjunctions, if, though, lest, tmless, etc., do not form 
part of the subjunctive mood, but are placed before it to express a con- 
dition or contingency (888). The pupil may go over the indicative, 
as a subjunctive, with one or other of these conjunctions prefixed. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — IRREGULAR. 129 

the verb to be, and the past participle, — the former 
to be regarded as an attributive yerb, and the latter as 
a participle limiting the subject of the attributive yerb, 
which is also its subject. Compare the following : — 

Sad at heart, he returned home. 

He was sad at heart. 

Admired by all, he became vain. 

He was admired by all, etc. 

509* The present passive has a somewhat different office in 
different verbs. In some, it represents the act as now in progress — 
in others, as now completed. In the former , it expresses passively the 
present continuance of the action, just as the present active does. 
Thus, " James loves Robert," and " Robert is loved by James," ex- 
press precisely the same thing. In the latter, the present passive 
expresses, not the continuance, but the result of the act now finished, 
as a predicate of the subject ; as, " The house is built." The act of 
building is here represented, not as continuing, but as completed ; 
and the result of the act expressed by "built" is predicated of 
" house." 

510. In all such verbs, the idea expressed by the present passive 
differs from that expressed by the present active ; the latter express- 
ing a continuing, the former, a completed act. A continuing act, in 
this class of verbs, can be expressed passively only when the parti- 
ciple in ing has a passive as well as an active sense (456). 

Sll» There is no passive form corresponding to the progressive 
form, in the active voice, except where the participle in ing is used 
passively ; as, " The house is building." The form introduced within 
the last fifty years, and now defended by some grammarians, viz., 
" The house is being built" ought to be regarded only as a clumsy 
solecism. On this subject, see 457 and Appendix IX. 

Exercises on the Passive Voice. 

EXERCISES — KO. I. 
Inflect the following verbs in the same manner as am loved (507). 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Am commended. 


was commended, 


commended. 


Am taught, 


was taught 


taught. 


Am told, 


was told, 


told. 


Am placed, 


was placed, 


placed. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMA K. 

EXERCISES — JSTO. II. 

1. In the following exercises, tell the tense, mood, voice, number, 
and person, and always in this order, viz. : " Is loved " — present, indi- 
cative, passive, third person, singular. 

2. In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus : " Be ye loved," 
imperative, passive, second person, plural. 

3. In the infinitive and participles, omit the person and number, 
and say thus : " To be loved," present, infinitive, passive. " Being 
loved," present participle, passive. 

They are loved ; we were loved ; she was loved ; he has 
been loved; I have been loved; thou hadst been loved; 
We shall be loved ; they will be loved ; I shall have been 
loved. 

He can be loved; she must be loved; they might be 
loved ; ye would be loved ; I could be loved ; thou mayst 
have been loved ; it may have been loved. If I be loved. 
Be thou loved ; you be loved. To be loved. Loved ; having 
been loved ; being loved. 

4. Put the above exercises, first in the negative form, and then, in 
the indicative and potential moods, in the interrogative form, as di- 
rected (499 and 502). 

EXERCISES — NO. III. 

Change the exercises (497, II. ; 498) into the passive form. Write 
them out, and then parse them ; thus, " We are loved by him," etc. 
Put each example in the negative form, and those in the indicative or 
potential, in the interrogative form, as directed (499 and 502). 

List of Irregular Verbs. 
312. An Irregular verb is one that does not 
form its past tense in the indicative active, and its 
past participle, Tby adding ed to the present. 

SI 3. %* The following list comprises nearly all the irregular 
verbs in the language. Those conjugated regularly, as well as irregu- 
larly, are marked with an R. When two forms are given, the first 
is most used. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — IRREGULAR. 131 



They may 


be conveniently divided into three classes : 


1. Those winch have only one form for the three parts given ; 


viz.: 






Present. 


Past 


Past Participle, 


Bet 


bet r 


bet r 


Burst 


burst 


Imrst 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Hit 


hit 


Jiit 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Knit 


knit r 


knit r 


Let 


let 


let 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit V 


quit r 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Set, de- 


set, be- 


set, be- 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Slit 


slit 


slit, slitted 


Spit 


spit, (spat, obsolete) 


spit 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread, be- 


spread, be- 


spread, be- 


Sweat 


v sweat 


r sweat 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Wet 


T wet 


v wet 


Whet 


r Whet 


v whet 


2. Those which have two forms for the parts given ; viz. : 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


Bend 


bent r 


bent v 


Bereave 


v bereft 


r bereft 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Betide 


T betid 


V betid 


Bless 


r blest 


T blest 


Bind, un- 


bound, am- 


bound, un- 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 



132 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle. 


Build, re- 


built, re- r 


built, re- r 


Burn 


v burnt 


V burnt 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Catcli 


caught V 


caught v 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Come, be- 


came, be- 


come, be- 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Deal 


dealt v 


dealt v 


Dig 


dug v 


dug T 


Dream 


V dreamt 


V dreamt 


Dress 


V drest 


v drest 


Dwell 


dwelt v 


dwelt r 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Gild 


r gilt 


r gilt 


Gird, be- en- 


v girt, be- en- 


r girt, be- en- 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Hang 


hung 


hung 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Hold, be- mth- 


held, be- with- 


held, holden, be- with* 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Kneel 


V knelt 


knelt v 


Lay, be- 


laid, be- 


laid, be- 


Lead, mis- 


led, mis- 


led, mis- 


Lean 


r leant 


V leant 


Leap 


r leapt 


V leapt 


Learn 


V learnt 


V learnt 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Lie 


lied 


lied 


Light 


r lit 


r lit 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Pass 


v past 


v past 



ETYMOLOGY — IRREGULAR VERBS. 


Present 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Pay, re- 


paid, re- 


paid, re- 


Pen, to inclose 


V pent 


V pent 


Rap 


v rapt 


v rapt 


Read 


read 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Ride 


rode 


rode, ridden 


Run 


ran 


run 


Say 


said 


said 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Shine 


shone v 


shone r 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Sit 


sat 


sat (sitten, obsolete.) 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Sling 


slung 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Smell 


v smelt 


r smelt 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spell 


r spelt 


v spelt 


Spend, mis- 


spent, mis- 


spent, mU- 


Spill 


r spilt 


v spilt 


Spoil 


spoilt v 


v spoilt 


Stand, with- etc. 


stood, vMli- 


stood, witli- 


Stave 


r stove 


v stove 


Stay 


v staid 


v staid 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Teach, mis- 


taught, mis- 


taught, mis- 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think, be- 


thought, be- 


thought, be- 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound v 


wound v 


Work 


wrought v 


wrought v 


Wring 


v wrung 


wrung v 



133 



134 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


3. Those winch 


have three forms for the parts given ; viz. 


Present. 


Past 


Past Participle. 


Am 


was 


been 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Awake 


awoke r 


awaked 


Bake 


baked 


7* baken 


Bear, to bring forth bare, bore 


born 


Bear,/<?r- 


bore, bare,/<?r- 


borne, for- 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bid 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke, brake 


broken, broke 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere 


V clave 


cleaved 


Cleave, to split 


clove, cleffc 


cloven, cleft 


Clothe 


clothed, clad 


r clad 


Crow 


K* crew 


crowed 


Dare, to venture 


r durst 


dared 


Dive 


r dove 


dived 


Do, mis- un- 


did, mis- un- 


done, mis- un- 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten 


Fall, be 


fell, be- 


fallen, be- 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Freight 


freighted 


fraught r 


Get, be- 


got, gat, be- 


gotten, got, be- 


Give,jfor- mis- 


gave,/<?r- mis- 


given, for- mis- 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave, en- 


graved, en- 


r graven, en- 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Heave 


r hove 


r hoven 


Hew 


hewed 


T hewn 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 



ETYMOLOGY — IRREGULAR VERBS. 



135 



Present 


Past. 


Future. 


Lie, to lie down 


lay 


lain 


Load 


loaded 


r laden 


Mow 


mowed 


T mown 


Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


Rise Or 


rose, de- 


risen, a- 


Rive 


rived 


T riven 


Saw 


sawed 


r sawn 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seethe 


T sod 


r sodden 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape, mis- 


shaped, mis- 


r shapen, mis- 


Shave 


shaved 


v shaven 


Shear 


T shore 


shorn 


Show 


showed 


V shown 


Shrink 


shrunk, shrank 


shrunk, shrunken 


Sing 


sung, sang 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Slide 


slid?' 


slidden, slid r 


Sling 


slung, slang 


slung 


Smite 


smote 


smitten, smit 


Sow 


sowed 


sown v 


Speak, be- 


spoke, spake, be- 


spoken, be- 


Spin 


spun, span 


spun 


Spring 


sprung, sprang 


sprung 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stride, de- 


strode, strid, be- 


stridden, strid, be- 


Strive 


v strove 


striven 


Strow, be- 


strowed, Re- 


r strown, be- 


Swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


Swell 


swelled 


v swollen 


Swim 


swum, swam 


swum 


Take, be- under- 


took, be- under- 


taken, be- under- 


Tear 


tore (tare, obsolete) 


torn 


Thrive 


V throve 


V thriven 


Throw 


threw v 


V thrown 


Tread 


trod (trode, obs.) 


trodden, trod 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Write 


wrote (writ, obs.) 


written (writ, obs) 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Defective Verbs. 

514. A Defective Verb is one in which some of 
the parts are wanting. The following list comprises 
the most important. They are irregular, and chiefly 
auxiliary :— 

Present. Past Present Past, 

Can could Shall should 

May might Will would 

Must ■ Wis wist 

Ought ought Wit ) 

Quoth quoth Wot ) 
Imperative — Beware. 

515. Ought, originally the past tense of owe, is now used to 
signify present duty ; and must, to denote present obligation or ne, 
cessity. When they refer to past time, a change is made in the infini- 
tive with which they are joined ; thus, Present — " These things ye 
ought to do;" Past — "These things ye ought to have done" (446 
and 449 ) 

516. Will, as an auxiliary, has wilt, and shall has shalt, in the 
second person singular. They are both without inflection in the 
third person singular. Will, as a principal verb, is regular. 

517 . Wis, ivist, which signifies, to know, to imagine, is now 
obsolete. Wit, of the same meaning and origin, is now used only 
in the infinitive, in the phrase, " to wit," that is, " namely." 

518. JBeivare (properly be and ware, or wary) is now used only 
in the imperative, and sometimes after an auxiliary ; as, " Beware of 
him " — " We should beware" 

519. Quoth, to say, to speak, is used only in ludicrous lan- 
guage ; its nominative always comes after the verb, and it has no 
variation for person, number, or tense ; as, " Quoth he " — " Quoth 
they," etc. 

To defective verbs also properly belong — 

Impersonal Verbs. 

520. Impersonal Verbs are those which assert 
the existence of some action or state, but refer it to 
no particular subject. 



ETYMOLOGY — IRREGULAR VERBS. 137 

They are always in the third person singular, and in 
English are preceded by the pronoun it; as, "It rains" 
—"It hails,"— "It behooves/ 9 etc. 

521. To this class of words belong the expressions, methinks, 
methought ; meseems, meseemetl ; sometimes used for, " It 
seems to me " — " It appears to me" etc. 

522. The pronoun it, preceding the impersonal verb as its sub- 
ject, is the substitute of some unknown and general, or well-known 
cause, the action of which is expressed by the verb, but which can 
not, or need not, itself be named (246-4). 

EXERCISES. 

1. Conjugate the following irregular verbs (485 and 513), stating 
why they are called irregular. Make complete sentences with them, and 
in these tell which are transitive, which are intransitive, and which 
are attributive, and why (32051). Extend the list at pleasure from 
the table. 

Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, 
bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, 
etc. 

EXERCISES OK THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. In the following exercises, parse the several words ; viz., the 
nouns as directed (182) — articles as (194) — adjectives as (225) — pro- 
nouns as (253) — and verbs as (491 and 496). 

[The words in Italics are prepositions, and the nouns or pronouns 
following them are in the objective case.] 

The wind shakes the trees. — The apples fell to the 
ground. — God created all things. — The heavens are the 
work of his hands.— The sun shines. — The fields are cover- 
ed with grain. — The crops are excellent. — The rivers run 
into the sea. — A good man shows pity to the poor (201). — 
Eemember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. — Truth 
is mighty. 

2. Form a list of ten nouns ; say something respecting each ; and 
parse the sentences so formed, as above. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAS, 



ADVERBS, 

523. An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to 
denote some circumstance respecting it ; as, "Ann 
speaks distinctly; she is remarkably diligent, and 
reads very correctly" 

524=. An adverb is generally equivalent to a modifying phrase, 
or adjunct (541) of the word to which it is joined. Thus, in the pre- 
ceding example, "distinctly" means, in a distinct manner; "re- 
markably," in a remarkable degree. So, " now" means, at this time ; 
" then" at that time, etc. Hence, adverbs and adverbial adjuncts are 
often used indiscriminately in modifying verbs, adjectives, and ad- 
verbs. 

525. On the same principle that an adverb modifies another 
adverb, it sometimes also modifies an adjunct 9 a phrase, or a 
sentence ; as, " I met your brother fab, from home " — " He will be 
here soon after mid-day" — "We shaU go immediately after the 
mail arrives" 

526. A few adverbs are sometimes used as adjuncts 
of nouns and pronouns ; as, " I only [that is, I, and 
no one else] am escaped alone to tell thee." — " The women 
also were present," that is, the women as well as the others 
— in addition to the others. 

The adverbs used in this way are such as the following : Chiefly, 
particularly, especially, entirely, altogether, solely, only, merely, partly 
also, likewise, too, etc. 

527. An adjunct, without the word to which it belongs, 
is called an adverbial phrase ; as, in shorty in vain, 
m general, at most, at least, at all. 

528. Adverbs have Tbeen divided into varions 
classes, according to their signification. The chief 
of these are the following : — 



Adverbs express 



ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 139 



Table of Adverbs. 

1. Manner; as, justly, bravely. 

2. Place ; as, here, there, where — hither. 

3. Time ; as, now, then, when, soon, often. 

4. Direction ; as, upward, downward. 

5. Affirmation ; as, yes, verity, certainly. 

6. Negation ; as, m^/, 710, tw£, nowise. 

7. Interrogation ; as, jfow ? w% f wftm f 

8. Comparison ; as, more, ra<9$£, £m, as. 

9. Quantity ; as, rai^, some, little, enough. 
\10. Order ; as, /rs£, secondly, thirdly, next. 



529. Tliere, commonly used as an adverb of place, is often used 
as an introductory empletive to the verbs to be, to come, to 
appear, and some others, when the subject, in declaratory sentences, 
follows the verb ; as, " There is no doubt of the fact " — " There are 
four boys here." Sometimes, when the subject goes before, it is 
placed between the subject and the verb ; as, "A mistake there is." 
In all such cases, there is a mere expletive. It adds nothing to the 
sense, but still it enables us to vary the form of expression, and to 
soften the abruptness which would otherwise exist. This will appear 
by omitting it in any of the preceding examples. 

Then does not always refer to time, but it is used to indicate a 
certain circumstance, or a case supposed ; as, " If you will go, then, 
[that is, in that case] say so." 

Now is sometimes used without reference to time, merely to indi- 
cate the transition from one sentence to another ; as, " Not this man, 
but Barabbas. Now Barabbas was a robber." 

530. The words, to-day 9 to-night, to-morrow, yester- 
day, used as adjuncts, may be called adverbs of time, or they may 
be regarded as nouns in the objective case, without the governing 
word (828), or as nouns in any case the construction may require. 

531. In comparisons, as and so, in the antecedent clause, are 
usually reckoned adverbs, because they modify an adjective or an- 
other adverb. The corresponding as and so, sometimes called con- 
junctions, are properly adverbs also, because resolvable into an 
adjunct (524) ; thus, "It is as high as heaven," that is, It is high in 
the degree in which heaven is high.— u So far as I know," that is, far 
to the extent to which I know. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

532. So is often used as the representative of a preceding word, 
phrase, or sentence, in order to prevent its repetition ; as, " To make 
men happy, and keep them so " — " France is highly cultivated — Eng- 
land more so " — " James is in good health, John is not so " — " I be- 
lieved that you would succeed, and I told you so." 

533. Therefore, wherefore, also, sometimes called con- 
junctions, are more properly adverbs, because used for the adjuncts, 
for this reason, for which reason, in addition (524). 

Conjunctive Adverbs. 

534. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that stands 
for two adjuncts, one of which contains a relative pronoun, 
and the other, its antecedent ; thus, " I will see you when 
you come." Here, when is equivalent to, at the time at 
ivhich ; the first part, "at the time? modifies "will see? 
and the second, "at which? modifies "come" Again, "I 
know not hotv it is done." Here hozv is equivalent to the 
manner in which. The first part, " the manner? is the 
object of " Icnoiv? and the second, " in which? is the ad- 
junct of " is done" In a similar way, tvhere may be re- 
solved into the place in which ; into whither, the place to 
which, etc. 

These adverbs perform a double office : they modify two different 
words, and connect the clauses to which they belong. They are, 
when, where, while, whither, whence. They are also used 
interrogatively, both directly and indirectly. Thus used, they are 
not conjunctive ; as, " When [that is, at what time] will you come ?" 
— " Thou knowest not whence [from what place] it cometh, and 
whither [to what place] it goeth." 

Formation and Derivation of Adverbs. 
535* Adverbs are either primitive or derivative* 

1. A few adverbs are primitive, or derived from no other words 
in the language ; as, yes, no, not, here, there, now, then, etc. 

Many adverbs of quality or manner, are derived from adjectives by 
adding ly ; as, diligent, diligently ; happy, happily (57) : or by chang- 
ing le into ly ; as, able, ably ; simple, simply. But adverbs are sel- 



ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 141 

dom formed from adjectives in ly, the adjunct being used in preference. 
Thus, we would not say, " He acted manlily," but " in a manly man- 
ner T or " like a man" 

3. Many compound adverbs are formed by combining words 
together, so as of two or more words forming an adjunct, to make one 
compound term ; as, indeed, hereby, thereby, wherewith, therefore, 
wheresoever, nevertheless, etc. 

4. Some nouns and other words are converted into adverbs by pre- 
fixing a, signifying, at, in, on, etc. ; as, abed, ashore, aloft, ahead, 
astern, aground, apart, adrift, afresh, alike, asleep, etc. (190). 

5. Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes as 
other parts of speech ; thus : — 

Much is used — 1. As an adverb, as, " He is much better." 

2. As an adjective ; as, " In much wisdom is 

much grief." 

3. As a noun ; as, " Where much is given, much 

is required." 
Yesterday is used — 1. As an adverb; as, "He came yesterday" 
(530). 
2. As a noun ; as, " Yesterday is past." 
Hut is used — 1. As an adverb ; as, " Give but one kind 
word." 

2. As a preposition (538) ; as, " None but the 

brave." 

3. As a conjunction (561) ; as, " He is poor, but 

honest." 
What is used — 1. As an interrogative ; as, " What is that?" 

2. As a relative ; as, " We speak what we 

know." 

3. As an adverb ; as, " What [partly] with one 

thing, and what [partly] with another, we 
had enough to do." 

6. Circumstances of time, place, manner, etc., are often expressed 
by two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase (527 and 
530) ; as, at length, not at all, by no means, in vain, in order, long ago, 
by-and-by, all over, to and fro, for ever, etc. Such phrases may be 
taken together as one word, and parsed as an adverb, or separately, 
as other words, where it can be done, supplying the ellipsis when 
necessary. See Appendix I. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

536. Adverbs of quality, derived from adjec- 
tives, and a few others, admit of comparison like 
adjectives ; as, nobly, more nobly, most nobly ; soon, 
sooner, soonest. 

The following are compared irregularly : — 

Pos. Comp. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup, 

Badly, or ill, worse, worst. Much, more, most. 

Far, farther, farthest. Well, better, best. 

Little, less. least. 

Parsing the Adverb. 

537. An adverb is parsed by stating what part 
of speech — the class to which it belongs — the word 
which it modifies — its derivation and comparison, if 
derived and compared. Thus : — 

" Ke speaks fluently" — Fluently, an adverb of manner, 
and modifies "speaks ;" derived from fluent, and compared 
more fluently, most fluently. 

PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

When we say, " John runs rapidly," what part of speech is John f 
what is runs (314) ? What is the use of the word rapidly in that sen- 
tence ? What part of speech are those words which express the man- 
ner of doing a thing (528-1) ? What part of speech, then, is rapidly ? 
Why ? Can you think of any other words that might be used to ex- 
press the manner in which " John runs "? — " Swiftly, slowly, well, ill." 
What part of speech are these words ? Suppose you say, " John ran 
yesterday " — " John runs now " — " John will run soon " — what is the 
use of the words yesterday, now, soon t What are words called which 
express a circumstance of time (528-3) ? Then what part of speech 
are yesterday, now, soon f Why ? 

What other words besides the verb do adverbs modify (523)? 
When we say, " John is a very good boy," what word modifies good t 



ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 143 

What part of speech is good? Why ? Then what part of speech is 
very ? Why ? 

If I say, " John reads exceedingly well," what word modifies reads f 
Ans. Well. Then what part of speech is well f Why ? What word 
tells us 7ww well he reads ? What word does exceedingly modify ? 
Then what part of speech is it ? Why ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell to what class the following adverbs belong — whether primi- 
tive or derivative — if not primitive, how are they formed— compare 
if compared : — 

Justly, wisely, happily, beautifully, fashionably, suffi- 
ciently, thirdly, nearly, almost, perfectly. 

Here, there, anywhere, hither, thither, yes, no, thence, 
somewhere — now, then, to-day, hereafter. 

2. Form sentences, each of which will contain one of the preceding 
adverbs. Parse as directed (537). 



PREPOSITIONS. 



538. A Preposition is a word which shows the 
relation "between the noun or pronoun following it, 
and some other word in the sentence; as, "The 
Love or Money"—" Come to me." 

539. Of the words related, that before the preposition is called 
the antecedent term of the relation, and that which follows it is called 
the subsequent term or regimen. 

The antecedent term is always limited by the prepositional 
phrase, which is, in character, adjective or adverbial, according as 
the antecedent is a substantive or some other word. 

540. Instead of a noun or pronoun, a preposition may 
be followed by an infinitive mood, or clause of a sentence, 
used as a substantive; as, "We are about to depart? — 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Honored for having done Ms duty. — " The crime of ieing 
a young man? 

34:1* The preposition and its regimen united are called the 
adjunct of the antecedent term ; and the antecedent term, 
as related to its adjunct, may be called the principal. It is usually a 
noun, or pronoun, && adjective, a verb, or an adverb ; as, 
u The waters of Jordan." — " Re with the book in his hand." — " It is 
good for me." " Pray for us." " He acts consistently with his prin- 
ciples." 

342. The same word not unfrequently has several adjuncts ; as, 
" He went from Boston to New YorJc, by railroad, in eight hours." 
Also the noun or pronoun in the adjunct may be limited by one or 
more adjuncts — the whole forming a compound adjunct ; as, 
" It is consistent with the character of a man of honor." Here " of 
honor " is the adjunct of man, " of a man of honor " is a compound 
adjunct of character ; and the whole, "with the character of a man 
of honor," is a compound adjunct of consistent. 

343. The preposition is so called because it is usually placed before 
its regimen, as in the above examples. Sometimes, however, the 
sentence may be so inverted that the preposition follows its regimen 
immediately, or at some distance ; as, " Where echo walks the steep * 
hills among." — " Whom did he speak to f" 

34:4:* In the natural order of a sentence, the adj unct follows its prin- 
cipal, as, " He withdrew after supper." It is often convenient, however, 
to arrange the adjunct first, as, "After supper he withdrew with his 
friend who had called for him." Here the same sense can not be given 
by placing the adjunct, " after supper " anywhere else in the sentence. 

343. Prepositions may be divided into classes which shall indi- 
cate their use, and in some sense, the historical order of their devel- 
opment. 

1. Relations of place. (1) Where a thing is (rest in) ; as in, on, 
at, by. (2) Direction to or from a place (motion) ; as, to, into, from, 
etc. (3) Both place and direction ; as, over, under, etc. 

2. Relations of time* (1) Relations of place extended, as in, after, 
etc. (2) Time merely ; as, since, till, during, etc. 

3. To indicate the agent or instrument. (1) Simple relations 
of place extended [The mill is by the river] ; as, " The mill is turned 
by the river. (2) Compound prepositional phrases ; as, by means of, 
by virtue of, etc. 

4. To denote cause ox purpose, as from, for, etc. 



ETYMOLOGY — PEEPOSITIO^S. 



145 



5. To denote miscellaneous relations, not easily classified, 
frequently by means of abbreviated forms of expressions 
These may be sliown approximately in the following 

Table of Prepositions. 

Best in, as, He is in the house. 



pq 

EH <l 

£J ^ 

pq 
Pw 



2. Time. 



1. Place. ^ Motion to or from, 
[Rest or motion, 
Time and Place, 
Time only, 

3. Agent ok instrument. 

4. Cause. 
Separation, 
Inclination, 
Aversion, 
Substitution, 
Possession, 
Reference, 

L Opposition, 



5. Miscel- 
laneous 

IDEAS. 



He went info the house. 

Over. 

At the place, af the time. 

Till noon 

J??/ his power. 

For my sake. 

Without. 

For. 

Against. 

Instead of. 

Of. 

Touching. 



Against. 

The following embraces most of the prepositions in common use : 
List of Prepositions. 

TO BE COMMITTED ACCURATELY TO MEMORY. 



About 


Behind 


From 


Through 


Above 


Beneath 


In 


Throughout 


Across 


Beside ) 
Besides ) 


Into 


Till 


After 


Notwithstandin 


gTo 


Against 


Between 


Of 


Touching 


Along 


Betwixt 


Off 


Toward ) 
Towards ) 


Amid ) 
Amidst ) 


Beyond 


On 


But 


Over 


Under 


Among ) 
Amongst ) 


By 


Out of 


Underneath 


Concerning 


Past 


Until 


Around 


Down 


Pending 


Unto 


At 


During 


Regarding 


Up 


Athwart 


Ere 


Respecting 


Upon 


Bating 


Except 


Round 


With 


Before 


Excepting 


Save 


"Within 


Below 


For 


Since 


Without 



146 ENGLISH GKAMM1E. 

546. Concerning, excepting, regarding, respecting, 
and touching 9 were originally present participles active of transi- 
tive verbs, and as such required an objective case after them (80i). 
They may frequently be so construed still. During may be regard- 
ed as originally the present participle active of an intransitive verb, 
having the noun or pronoun in the nominative case absolute (769) ; 
thus, " During life," means life during, or while life endures. Not- 
withstanding, a compound of not and the present participle with- 
standing, may be explained the same way. Still, when used as a 
preposition, the word following must be regarded as in the objective 
case (818). 

547* Except and save were originally imperatives. Out of 
may be regarded either as two words — an adverb and preposition — or 
as one word — forming a sort of compound preposition. Of this char- 
acter are the following : From between, from beyond, from 
tvithin, from without 9 over against, and the like. Off is, 
for the most part, an adverb, and means at a distance ; as, " Far off" 
With a noun or pronoun following, it is a preposition, and means not 
on, from, etc. ; as, " Off the table." 

548. The word a in the sense of at, in, on, to, of, etc., has the 
force of a preposition in such expressions as a reading, a running, a 
going, a hunting, etc. (190), and may be parsed as such. The same 
word is used as a prefix in such words as aboard, ashore, asleep, abed, 
afloat, etc. (190). 

549. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is, by some, regarded 
as a sort of verbal prefix belonging to the form of the verb in that 
part. It is properly a preposition, but is rarely analysed and parsed 
as such. 

550. When a preposition has not an object, it becomes an ad- 
verb ; as, " He rides about." But in such phrases as cast up, hold 
out, fall on, etc., up, out, on, should be considered as parts of the 
verbs to which they are joined, rather than as prepositions or ad- 
verbs. 

551. Several words in the preceding list are used sometimes as 
prepositions and sometimes as other parts of speech ; as, thus : — till, 
until, after, before, etc., are frequently adverbs. But and save, fol- 
lowed by the objective case, are used as prepositions ; followed by a 
nominative, they are conjunctions. For and since are also used as 
conjunctions. 



ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 147 

552. All words used as prepositions are followed by a substan- 
tive in the objective case. 

Parsing* 

553. A preposition is parsed by stating what 
part of speech, and between what words it shows 
the relation ; thus, " The waters of Jordan." Of is 
a preposition, and shows the relation between Jor- 
dan and waters. 

Here Jordan is the regimen of the preposition of; of Jordan is the 
adjunct of waters; and waters is the principal to which the adjunct 
belongs. 

554. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

When I say, " The book is on the table," what word shows the 
relation of book to the table t What part of speech are words that 
show the relation between nouns or pronouns, and other words in the 
sentence ? Then what part of speech is on f Could the book be in 
any other relation to the table than on it ? It might be off the table, 
above the table, under the table, beside the table, etc. Then what 
part of speech are off, above, under, beside t Why ? When we say, 
" They live in the country," what word shows the relation between 
country and live ? Then what part of speech is in f 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences point out the preposition and the words 
between which it shows the relation. Name the adjunct and prin- 
cipal. In what sentences has the principal more than one adjunct ? — 
in what a compound adjunct? Frame other sentences containing 
prepositions. 

He went from Boston. — He went to Washington. — He 
went from Boston to Washington. — We reside in the coun- 
try. — All rivers flow into the sea. — He gave his book to me. 
— He gaye [to] me his book. — Flowers bloom in summer. — 
In summer flowers bloom. 

2. In the preceding exercises, parse each word in order as directed, 
under each of the several parts of speech. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

555. An Interjection is a word used in excla- 
mations, to express an emotion of the mind ; as, 
" Oh ! what a fall was there. " 

556. The Interjection is so called, because it is, as it were, 
throtvn in among the words of a sentence, without any gram- 
matical connection with them. Sometimes it stands at the beginning 
of a sentence, sometimes in the middle, and sometimes it stands alone, 
as if the emotion were too strong to admit of other words being 
spoken. 

List of Interjections. 

557. The following is a list of the interjections most 
commonly used. They express various kinds of emotions, 
but in so yague and indefinite a way as not to admit of 
accurate classification. 

Ah ! alas ! ! oh ! ha ! fudge ! tush pshaw ! poh ! pugh ! 
fie ! avaunt ! ho ! holla ! aha ! hurrah ! huzza ! brayo ! hist ! 
hush ! heigho ! heyday ! hail ! lo ! welcome ! halloo ! adieu ! 
etc. 

558. Also some words belonging to other parts of speech, when 
uttered in an unconnected and forcible manner, to express emotion, 
are called interjections ; as, nonsense I strange ! wonderful! shocking ! 
what! behold! off! away! hark! come! well done! welcome! 

559. O is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should 
be prefixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address ; as, " 
Virtue ! how amiable thou art !" Oh is used detached from the 
word, with a point of exclamation after it, or after the next word. It 
implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise ; as, " Oh ! what a 
sight is here/' 

JParsing. 

560* An interjection is parsed "by stating the 
part of speech, why, and the emotion expressed ; 
as, " Oh ! what a sight is here." 



ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS. 149 

Oh — an interjection, because used as an exclamation, and 
expresses an emotion of pain. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

561. A Conjunction is a word Tsihich connects 
words, phrases, or sentences ; as, " He and I must 
go, but yon may stay." — " Of Mm, and through, 
him, and to him, are all things." 

562. Here, and connects the words He and I, and but connects 
the sentences, "He and I must go," and " you may stay." 

563. Conjunctions sometimes begin sentences, even after a full 
period, to show a connection between sentences in the general tenor 
of discourse. See, as examples, the first chapter of Genesis. 

564. And, or, and nor, are the conjunctions most 
frequently employed to connect words and phrases. 

From the difference in their use and meaning, conjunctions are 
divided into classes : 

565. Conjunctions are of two classes : Copula- 
five and Disjunctive. 

566. A Copulative Conjunction not only joins 
sentences together, "but also unites their mean- 
ing. Of these there are two kinds : 

1. Connective, which simply connect the meaning 
of two united sentences [words or phrases] ; as, " The sun 
shines, and the sky is clear." 

2. Continuative, which combine the meaning of 
the united sentences ; as, " The sun shines because the sky 
is clear." 

Xote. — The latter generaUy add a subordinate clause, which 
limits the preceding, or some part thereof. 

567. A Disjunctive Conjunction is one which, 
while it joins two sentences together, disconnects 
their meaning. There are two kinds : 



150 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE, 



1. Distributive, which simply disconnect, or 

distribute the meaning of the united sentences [words or 
phrases] ; as, " You may go or you may stay." 

2. Adversative, which contrast the meaning of 
the united sentences ; as, " It is day, but it is not night." 



Table of Conjunctions. 



<i 
o 

EH 

o 

O 



I. Copulative. 



1. Connective. 



,2. Continuative.* 



And 

Also 

Likewise 

Moreover 

Further 

Both 

For 

r Before where except 
Ere whether however 
After whence as if 
When if so that 

Whilst because unless 
Until that though 
Whenever than 

Although as since 
Lest provided 
whereas 



rl. Distributive. 



II. Disjunctive. - 



,2. Adversative, 



( Or nor 
1 Either neither 

But* 

Nevertheless 

However 

Still. 

Notwithstanding 

Yet 

Whereas 



* B ut as a correlative of not only is copulative ; as, "Not only 
the men, but the boys came." 



ETYMOLOGY — COK JUICTIO^S, 151 

568. And is the principal connective, and connects 
what follows as an addition to that which precedes. Most 
of the others connect what follows as a condition, supposi- 
tion, cause, motive, etc. 

569. Both is an antecedent conjunction, related to 
and. When used, it precedes the first of the words or sen- 
tences connected by and, in order to make the connection 
more emphatic. 

570. Hither and neither are antecedent conjunc- 
tions, related to or and nor respectively. When used, they 
precede the first of the words or sentences connected by or 
or nor, to render them more emphatic. Sometimes they 
are transposed to the end of the sentence so as to giye em- 
phasis to the latter member ; as, " Was that your business, 
or mine either ?" That was not my business, nor yours 
neither-— neither my business nor yours. 

57 1. Therefore and wherefore, sometimes called conjunc- 
tions, are more properly adverbs (533). 

Parsing the Conjunction* 

572. A conjunction is parsed "by stating the part 
of speech, its class, sub-class, and the words, 
phrases, or sentences which it connects; as, "He 
and I must go ; but you may stay." 

And — a copulative conjunction, connective, and unites 
the words He and L 

But — a disjunctive conjunction, adversative, and con- 
nects the sentences, ".He and I must go," and "you may 

stay." 

&73. Preliminary Oral Eocerci&e. 

When we say, " John and James study," what word connects John 
and James? What class of words connect words or sentences? 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What part of speech is and? In the sentence, "John reads and 
-writes," what does and connect ? What does and connect in the fol- 
lowing phrases, "A red and white rose "— " A red rose and a white 
rose "— " Well and truly said ?" What conjunction connects the fol- 
lowing sentences, " They are happy, because they are good ?" Here 
the following facts may be noticed (945, etc.) : — 

1. When two nouns or pronouns are connected, they are in 
the same case, and in the same construction. 

2. When two verbs are connected, they have the same sub- 
ject ; as, "James reads and writes." 

3. When two adjectives are connected, they qualify the same 

noun or pronoun. 

4. When two adverbs are connected, they modify the same 

word. 

5. When conjunctions connect sentences, they do not connect 
individual words in the sentence. Thus, "They are happy, 
because they are good," the conjunction does not connect they with 
they, nor are with are, nor happy with good ; but, " They are happy" 
with " they are good." So also when they connect phrases : " He 
spoke to James, and to me " — " Of him, and through him, and to him, 
are all things." 



EXERCISES OK CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. In the following sentences, point out the conjunctions, and state 
what words, or phrases, or sentences, they connect. Sometimes the 
order is so inverted, that the conjunctive clause stands first. 

2. Parse the words in their order. 

Time and tide wait for no man. — The evening and the 
morning were the first day. — The memory of the just is 
blessed, but the name of the wicked shall rot. — If thou 
faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small.— 
George or John will go. — They will succeed, because they 
are industrious. — Because they are industrious they will 
succeed. — Of him, and through him, and to him, are all 
things. — Though he slay me., yet will I trust in him. 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS, 153 

PARSING. 

574. Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into 
its elements or parts of speech. 

575. Words may be parsed in two ways : Etymologically 
(576), and Syntactically (983). 

1. Etymological parsing consists in stating the part 
of speech to which each word in a sentence belongs, its 
uses and accidents, its inflection, and changes, and deriva- 
tion, if derived. 

2. Syntactical parsing adds to the above a statement 
of the relation in which the words stand to each other, and 
the rules according to which they are combined in phrases 
and sentences. 

Note. — In the natural order, Etymological parsing should 
precede Analysis, "because we can not analyze a sentence before we 
have learned the character of the words it contains ; and Analysis 
should precede Syntactical parsing, because, till we know the 
parts and elements of a sentence, we can not understand their rela- 
tions, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole. As 
Etymological parsing has to do only with the accidents of words, it 
matters not whether the words parsed are unconnected, or in sen- 
tences. But in both Analysis and Syntactical parsing, not only must 
the words constitute a sentence, but that also must be both intelligible 
and understood ; for no one can either analyze or parse syntacticaUy 
that which he does not understand. 

Etymological Parsing,* 

576. Words are parsed etymologically in the man- 
ner directed under each part of speech, viz. : Nouns (182) 
— articles (194) — adjectives (225) — pronouns of different 
kinds, viz. : personal (253), relative (278), interrogative 
(286), adjective (313)— verbs (491 and 496)— adverbs (537) 
— prepositions (553) — interjections (560) — conjunctions 
(572). 

577 '. That a pupil should be expert and accurate in this exercise 



154 ENGLISH GEAIMAE, 

is of much importance, in order to pursue with pleasure and success 
the study of Syntax, and to gain a correct understanding of the forms 
and usages of speech in the English language. 

578* A sentence to be parsed must be intelligible, and it is 
necessary for the pupil, in the first place, to understand it* When 
he understands a sentence, and also the definition of the different 
parts of speech given in the grammar, he will not find much difficulty 
in ascertaining to which of them each word belongs. This method 
will exercise the discriminating powers of the pupil better, engage his 
attention much more, and, on trial, be found much more easy and 
certain than that of consulting his dictionary on every occasion — a 
plan always laborious, often unsatisfactory, and which, instead of 
leading him to depend on his own resources, will induce habits of 
slavish dependence on the authority of others. 

579. The following general principles should be 
remembered, and steadily kept in view, in parsing every 
sentence, viz. : — 

1. Every adjective qualifies or limits a noun or pro- 
noun, expressed or understood (195 and 196). 

2. The subject of a verb, that is, the person or thing 
spoken of is always in the nominative (except when 
the verb is in the infinitive or participial mood) (315 and 
760). 

3. Every verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, 
or imperative, has a subject, expressed or understood 
(661, 4). 

4. Every verb in the active voice used transitively, 
and every preposition, is followed by a noun or pronoun in 
the objective case, or by an infinitive mood or a clause of a 
sentence equivalent to it ; and every objective case, except 
as in (828), is the object of a transitive verb in the 
active voice, or of a preposition (661, 6). 

5. The infinitive mood, for the most part, depends 
on a verb or adjective (865). 

580. MODEL OF ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 
" The minutest plant or animal, if [it is] attentively ex- 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 155 

amined, affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to ad- 
mire and adore the Omnipotent Hand, by which it was 
created." 

581. Previous to parsing this sentence, the pupil may be led to 
understand it better, and perceive its parts more distinctly, by attend- 
ing* to such questions as the following : What is spoken of in this 
sentence ? How are plant and animal qualified ? What is said of 
them thus qualified ? How is wonders limited ? What else is said 
of plant and animal t Whom do they oblige ? What do they oblige 
us to do ? How is hand qualified f What hand f etc. 

382. The length of time necessary to parse even a few words, 
giving aU the reasons, as in the full schemes (576), renders it imprac- 
ticable to do it often, though occasionaUy it may be profitable. The 
following brief method wiU answer every purpose : — 

TJie Definite article, belonging to plant and animal, and 

showing them to be limited. 

minutest . . • .Adjective, superlative degree, qualifying plant, etc. 

plant A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject of 

affords. 

or A disjunctive conjunction, distributive, connecting plant 

and animal as alternates. 

animal. A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject of 

affords. 

if. A copulative conjunction, continuative, connecting the 

sentences. 

it Third personal pronoun, neuter, in the nominative sin- 
gular, standing for plant or animal, and subject of is 
examined. 

is examined. .A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative, pas- 
sive, expressing what is done to its subject it. 

attentively. . .A adverb, modifying examined ; compared by more and 
most. 

affords A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative, 

active, third person singular, and affirms of plant or 
animal. 

a Indefinite article, showing thousand wonders to be in- 
definite. 

thousand A numeral adjective, used to qualify wonders. 

wonders . A noun, neuter, in the objective plural, object of affords. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and.. A copulative conjunction, connective ; connects the predi- 
cates affords and obliges. 

obliges A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative, 

active, third person singular, and affirms of plant or 
animal. 

us First personal pronoun, in the objective plural, object of 

obliges, and subject of to admire, etc. 

to admire... .A verb transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, ac- 
tive, attribute of us, or object of obliges. 

and A copulative conjunction, connective ; connects to ad- 
mire and to adore. 

to adore A verb transitive, regular, etc., (same as to admire). 

that Demonstrative adjective pronoun, pointing out hand. 

Omnipotent . An adjective, not compared, qualifying hand. 

hand A noun, neuter, in the objective singular, object of to ad- 
mire and to adore. 

by A preposition, which shows the relation between which 

and was created. 

which A relative pronoun, related to hand as its antecedent, ob- 
jective, object of the preposition by. 

it Third personal pronoun (same as before) subject of was 

created. 

was created . A verb transitive, regular, in the past indicative, passive, 
third person singular, and affirms of it. 

EXEECISES IK PARSING. 

583* The following exercises are intended to familiar- 
ize tlie pupil with, the most usual forms of relation, so that 
he may, without embarrassment, enter upon the more diffi- 
cult discussions of Syntax. Appropriate exercises should 
he extended, under each rule. 

1. Two or more adjectives in succession, either with or without 
a conjunction, qualify the same word ; as, 

1. A wise and faithful servant will always study his 
master's interest. 2. He has bought a line new coat. 

2. When an adjective precedes itvo notims, it generally qualifies 
them both ; as, 

1. They waited for a fit time and place. 2. He was a 
man of great wisdom and moderation. 



ETYMOLOGY — PAESIIG. 157 

3. When an adjective comes after an attributive verb, it gener- 
ally qualifies the subject of that verb ; as, 

1. John is wise. 2. They were temperate. 3. The sky is 
yery clear. 4. These rivers are deep and rapid. 

4. Whatever words the verb " to he " serves to unite, referring to 
the same thing, must be of the same case ; as, 

1. Alexander is a student. 2. Mary is a beautiful painter. 
3. Knowledge is power. 

Note. — It is necessary to the application of tliis rule, that the 
words connected refer to the same thing. This connection is often 
made by other words than the verb " to be " (605 or 797). 

£. Nouns and pronouns, placed together for the sake of em- 
phasis or explanation, and denoting the same object, are said to be in 
apposition, and always agree in case ; as, 

1. Alexander j the coppersmith, was not a friend to the 
Apostle Paul. 2. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest 
friend. 

Note. — In parsing such sentences as those above, a relative and a 
verb may be inserted between the words in apposition. JSfyself, 
thyself, himself, etc., often stand at a considerable distance from 
the words with which they agree ; as, 

3. Thomas dispatched the letter himself. 

6. Myself, thyself, himself, etc., often form the objectives 
after active-transitive verbs, of which the words they represent are the 
subjects. They are in such cases generally called Mefiexive pronouns 
(249) ; as, 

1. / hurt myself. 2. He wronged himself to oblige us. 
3. They will support themselves by their industry. 

7. Adjectives taken as nouns and used in reference to persons, 
are generally of the plural number (201) ; as, 

1. The valiant never taste of death but once. 2. The vir- 
tuous are generally the most happy. 

8. .Nouns and pronouns taken in the same connection, must be 
of the same case ; as, 

1. The master taught him and me to write. 2. He and 
she were schoolfellows. 



158 EKGLISH GRAMMAR, 

9. A relative in the objective case generally precedes the verb on 
which it depends ; as, 

1. He is a friend whom I greatly respect 2. The books 
which I bought yesterday, I have not yet received. 

10. When loth a relative and Us antecedent have each a verb 
belonging to it, the relative is commonly the subject of the first verb, 
and the antecedent the subject of the second ; as, 

1. He who acts wisely deserves praise. 2. He who is a 
stranger to industry may possess, but he can not enjoy. 

11. The relative what in itself represents but one case — the nom- 
inative or objective ; but it implies a reference to a general antecedent 
omitted, to which belongs the other case required by the construction. 
When this antecedent is expressed, which is used instead of what 
(266.) 

1. This is precisely what was necessary. 2. What can 
not be prevented must be endured. 

12. Whoever and whosoever are equivalent to a simple rela- 
tive, and a general or indefinite antecedent, and in parsing may be so 
resolved; thus, whoever = any one who. The same is the case with 
whatever and whatsoever ; whatever=everything which ; as, 

1. Whoever told such a story must have teen misinformed. 
2. Whoever is not content in poverty would not be per- 
fectly happy in the midst of plenty. 

Note. — Whatever is most frequently used, as what sometimes 
is (277) simply to qualify a noun ; as, 

3. Aspire at perfection, in whatever state of life you may 
be placed. 4. I forget what words he uttered. 

13. Though a participle never directly declares, yet it always 
implies something done or doing ; and is used in reference to some 
noun or pronoun which is its subject / as, 

1. Admired and applauded, he became vain. 2. Having 
finished our lessons, we went to play. 

14:* The past participle of a few intransitive verbs is some- 
times joined to the verb "to be" which gives such verbs a passive 
appearance (374) ; as, 



ETYMOLOGY — PARSING. 159 

1. I am come, in compliance with your desire. 2. The 
old house is fallen down. 3. John is gone to London. 
15. Intransitive verbs are often followed by prepositions, 

making what are sometimes called compound transitive verbs. The 
verb and preposition may, in such cases, be parsed either together or 
separately in the active voice. In the passive voice they must be parsed 
together ; as, 

1. He laughed at such folly. 2. They smiled upon us. 
3. He was much laughed at for such conduct. 

16. A noun or pronoun is often used with a participle, 
without being connected in grammatical construction with any other 
words of the sentence. It is then called the nominative absolute, 
or independent ; as, 

1. The father leing dead, the estate came into the^ hands 
of the eldest son. 2. Whose gray top shall tremble, he 
descending. 

17 '. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the verbs 
hid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let; and some- 
times after perceive, behold, observe, have, know, etc., in the active 
voice, but is retained after the same verbs in the passive ; as y 

1. Let me look at your portrait. He lade me go with 
him. 3. I heard him assert the opinion. 4. I saw him 
ride past at great speed. 

18. Verbs connected by conjunctions are usually in the same 
mood and tense, but in the compound tenses the sign is often used 
icith the first only, and understood with the rest ; as, 

1. He can neither read nor write. 2. He shall no longer 
tease and yex me as he has done. 

19, Nouns and pronouns are often the object of a preposi- 
tion understood; and nouns denoting time, value, weight, or 
measure, are used to restrict verbs or adjectives, without a governing 
word (828) ; as, 

1. He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair. 
2. Will you lend me your knife. 3. He traveled on foot, 
last summer, as far as London. 4. He was in Paris last 
month. 



160 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

20. The conjunctions than and as, implying comparison, have 
the same case after them as before them ; and the latter case has the 
same construction as the former ; as, 

1. He has more books than my brother (has). 2. They 
respect Mm more than (they respect) us. 

21. The class of words, or part of speech to which a word be- 
longs, depends often on its application / as, 

1. Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. 2. We 
may expect a calm after a storm. 3. To prevent passion is 
easier than to calm it. 4. Better is a little with content, 
than a great deal with anxiety. 5. The gay and dissolute 
think little of the miseries which are stealing softly after 
them. 6. A little attention will rectify some errors. 

22. Do, have, and be, are principal verbs when used by them- 
selves, but auxiliaries when connected with other verbs ; as, 

1. He does all in his power to gain esteem. 2. We must 
do nothing that will sully our reputation. 3. She has a 
strong claim to our respect. 4. He is at home. 

23. An infinitive, a participle used as a noun, or a clause 
of a sentence, which may be called a substantive phrase, is 
often the subject of a verb, or the object after an active-transitive verb 
or preposition (762 and 802) ; as, 

1. Subject. — 1. To study hard is the best way to improve. 
2. To endure misfortune with resignation is the character- 
istic of a great mind. 

2. Object. — 1. He that knows how to do good, and does it 
not, is without excuse. 2. He declared that nothing could 
give him greater pleasure. 3. Of making many books there 
is no end. 

24. When a substantive phrase (533, 23) is governed by a 
verb or preposition, this regimen does not affect the case of individual 
nouns or pronouns in that phrase, but leaves them subject to the influ- 
ence of other icords within the phrase itself. 

If tlie infinitive or participle of the verb " to be/ 9 or of a 
passive verb of naming, etc., is used in this way without a definite 



ETYMOLOGY — P A R S I K G . 161 

subject, the substantive which follows it as a predicate is regarded as 
neither the subject of a verb, nor is under the regimen of any word ; 
thus, " His being an expert dancer does not entitle him to our regard." 
The phrase "being an expert dancer " is the subject of the verb — 
" does entitle" but the word " dancer" in that phrase, is neither 
the subject of 'any verb, nor governed by any word in the sentence. 
Of this kind are all such expressions as the following : " It is an honor 
to be the author of such a work." — " To be surety for a stranger is 
dangerous." — " The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall 
attempt neither to palliate nor deny." — Pitt. In all such examples, 
whether the phrase be the subject of a verb, or the object of an ac- 
tive-transitive verb or preposition, the noun or pronoun following the 
verb " to be," or a passive verb, is properly in the predicate-nomina- 
tive (651 and 799). The words may be parsed separately, or the whole 
phrase may be parsed as one word. 

1. He had the honor of being a director for life. 2. By 
being a diligent student, he acquired eminence in his pro- 
fession. 

25, It often refers to persons, or to an infinitive coming after; 
as, 

1. It is John that is to blame. 2. It was I that wrote 
the letter. 3. It is the duty of all to improve. 4. It is 
easy to form goq^resolutions, but difficult to put them in 
practice. 

26, Words, especially in poetry, are often much transposed ; 

as, 

1. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 2. On yourself de- 
pend for aid. 3. Happy the man who puts his trust in his 
Maker. 

4. ISTo hive hast thou of hoarded sweets. 

5. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 

[As additional exercises in parsing, the little work en- 
titled " Progeessiye Exercises in Analysis and Parsing" 
may now be used, or sentences from any plain, simple, and 
accurate composition, such as are contained in the reading 
lessons, may be selected.] 



PART III. 

SYNTAX 



384. Syntax is that part of grammar which 
treats of the proper arrangement and connection, of 
words in a sentence. 

585. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as contains an 
affirmation, and makes complete sense ; as, " Man is mortal " (660). 

It is a complete thought expressed in words. 

586. The Sentence consists of two parts, the Subject and the 
Predicate. 

1. The Subject names that of which the affirmation is made (with 
all its attributes, conditions, etc., antecedent to the judgment which 
gave rise to the affirmation). 

2. The 'Predicate includes all that is affirmed of the subject, 
that is, all the second part of the proposition. 

Subject Predicate. 

Birds 
Grass 

act prudently 
will improve 
employ their talents rightly. 

The Yerh which makes the affirmation is, by itself, called the 
ajffirmer. 

SS7* The real office of the sentence consists in affirming the 
union of two ideas. Thus, grass and green are two ideas ; when 
the latter is affirmed of the former, we have the sentence, " Grass is 
green." The word which unites them is sometimes called the 
copula, 

1. The copula, which contains the affirmation, is most frequently 
included in the predicate ; as, " Birds fly 

2. In the compound tenses the auxiliary is the copula ; but in 
analysis, it is more convenient to regard the copula as belonging to 
the predicate. 



Wise men 

The boy who studies 

Good men 



fly. 

is green. *** 



SYNTAX — SENTENCES, 163 

Classification of Sentences. 

588. Sentences are divided into different classes : 

1. As to the form of the affirmation, or mode of expressing it. 

2. As to the nature of the affirmation, depending chiefly upon 
the meaning of the verb. 

3. As to the number of propositions they express. 

I. Forms of Sentences. 

589. There axe four classes : 

1. Declaratory, or such as declare a thing ; as, " God is love." 

2. Interrogatory , or such as ask a question ; as, " Lovest thou 
me r 

3. Imperative, or such as express a command ; as, " Lazarus, 
come forth!" 

4. Exclamatory, or such as contain an exclamation ; as, " Be- 
hold how he loved him I " 

II. Nature of the Affirmation. 

590. Examining the three following sentences, we discover a 
marked difference in the nature of the affirmation : 

Boys love candy. (Transitive.) 

Birds fly. (Intransitive.) 

Sugar is sweet. (Attributive.) 

These sentences are types of the three classes. 

1. A Transitive Sentence asserts an act that must 
have a receiver (i. e., grammatically, an object). 

2. An Intransitive Sentence asserts an act of the 
person or thing named "by the subject, which has no re- 
ceiver (no object). 

3. An Attributive Sentence asserts an attribute* 



* The attribute may be an adjective, noun, substantive sentence, 
infinitive, or participle. This will, of course, include the passive par- 
ticiple, with the verb to he, commonly called the passive verb, or 
passive voice of the transitive verb. 



164 ENGLISH GRAIIAE, 

of the subject, and is connected by the verb to le, or some 
other attributive yerb. 

Note.— In Transitive and 'Attributive sentences there is 
what some grammarians call a third part— in the one it consists 
of the object word and its dependents ; in the other, of the attri- 
bute and its limiters. These— object and attribute— we prefer to 
regard as subordinate elements, which may themselves be lim- 
ited ; and as they complete the proposition, we may term them com- 
plementary elements (596, 1). 

III. Number of Propositions. 

591. Sentences? according to the number of pro- 
positions they contain, are of two classes, single and com- 
pound. 

1. A single sentence expresses only one proposition 
(judgment, complete assertion). 

2. A compound sentence consists of two or more 
simple sentences united together. 

It will be seen that in this classification, a sentence may assert of 
two or more subjects ; as, " John and James study," or may contain 
a limiting clause ; as, " The boy who studies will improve/' " I will 
go when the cars go ;" and still be a single sentence. 

The parts of a compound sentence (independent m 
grammatical construction) are called members. 

592. Single sentences may be distributed into 
three classes : 

1st. Those containing one subject, one verb, and (if 
transitive or attributive) one object or attribute, called 
simple sentences. 

2d. Those having two or more of any of these parts, said 
to be compound in the part thus affected. 

3d. Containing a limiting clause, called complex sen- 
tences. 

This scheme may be represented as follows : 



SYNTAX — SENTENCES. 165 



Subject. 
Affirmer. 
Object. 
Attribute. 



{Simple (or pure). 
Compound in 
Complex. 

^ \ Members coordinate. 
*) Members logically dependent. 

Compound sentences are to be separated, in analy- 
sis, into their members, and each member treated as a 
single sentence. . Any member considered by itself may 
have any of the distinctions noticed in single sentences. 

593. 1. A phrase is two or more words rightly put 
together, but not containing an affirmation or making 
complete sense; as, "In truth" — "In a word" — "To say 
the least" 

2. A substantive phrase is one which, in the construction of a 
sentence, is equivalent to a noun or substantive, being 1. The sub- 
ject of a verb ; as, " To do good is to be happy." 2. The object of 
a transitive verb (320,1); as, "To do good forget not." 3. The 
object of a preposition (540) ; as, " By pursuing this course he suc- 
ceeded." 4. The attribute after an attributive verb (604) ; as, " He 
appears to be doing well." 

3. When a phrase consists of a preposition with its regimen (541) 
as related to its principal or antecedent term, it is called an ad- 
junct ; as, " The waters of Jordan " — " They came to Jordan" 



Elements of the Sentence. 

594. Any word, phrase, or clause, performing a specific 



* The sub-division of compound sentences given in the scheme, 
comprises, 1st (with members coordinate), those that are both gram- 
matically and logically independent of each other ; 2d, (logically de- 
pendent), those in which one or more members represent a purpose or 
end, or some logical sequence of the leading member, but do not per- 
form the office of an adjunct clause ; as, " I shall go home to-morrow, 
for I have some work to do" 



166 



ENGLISH GEAM1AE, 



office is called an element* Some elements are essential 
to the very existence of the sentence. These are called 
principal elements. All others are subordinate and 
attendant elements. 

595. The principal elements are, 

1. Subjective, — the noun, pronoun, or clause, of which the affir- 
mation is made. 

2. Affirmative, — the verb making the affirmation. 

596. The subordinate elements are, 

1. Complementary,— the object or attribute, in transitive 
and attributive sentences ; and 

2. Adjunctive, — words, phrases, or clauses used to limit, like 
adjectives and adverbs. 

597. Attendant elements are conjunctions, exple- 
tives (529), and words of euphony. 

The following classification exhibits all the sentential 
elements : 



ELEMENTS 

OF THE 

SENTENCE. 



Principal. 



Subordinate. 



c Subjective. 
( Affirmative. 

r Complementary. 
( Adjunctive. 



Attendant Elements. 



( Objective. 
( Attributive, 
j Adnominal. 
( Adverbial. 



Note. — In the analysis of a sentence, the larger offices must be 
sta ed before the specific uses and connections of the separate words. 



I. Analysis of Sentences. 

598. Preliminary Remarks.— The subject of Analysis here 
introduced will be found to be an important preparation for the Con- 
struction of sentences (660, etc.). After the pupil has become 
familiar with this portion, the Analysis of two .or three sentences 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 167 

daily will be an amusement rather than a tasfc;. He should begin of 
course with sentences of the simplest character, gradually advancing 
to those that are more complex. For this purpose, sentences may 
be selected from any " Reading book " of easy lessons, or from " Par- 
sing Exercises " (583), or from the little work entitled " Progressive 
Exercises est Analysis and Parsing," adapted to this Grammar. 
At first, the teacher may direct the attention of the pupil orally to 
the order of Analysis by such questions as the following : What is 
a sentence ? — Is this sentence [" God is good "] simple or compound ? 
— Why simple ? — What are the parts of a sentence (586) ? — What is- 
the subject of a sentence (586. 1.) ? — Of whom does this sentence 
affirm ? — Then, what word is the subject of this sentence? — What is 
the predicate of a sentence (586. 2.) — What is here affirmed of the 
subject " God" ? — Then what is the predicate in this sentence ? — Of 
how many parts does the predicate consist (601) ? — What are they ? 
— In this predicate, what word is the attribute ? — What the copula ? 
What is the verb called when used as a copula only (604) ? What 
are the verbs commonly used as copulatives (605) ? Having, in some 
such a way as this, conducted the analysis of simple sentences till the 
pupil has become familiar with it, the same, or a similar process may 
be pursued with sentences in which the subject or the predicate is 
modified ; and so with sentences having a compound subject (613), or 
a compound predicate (627) ; and then proceed to compound sentences 
(656), and to limiting clauses, etc, (635), After a few trials of this 
kind, the pupil will be able to analyze sentences without the aid of 
questions, and do it more rapidly and satisfactorily : thus : " God is 
good." This is a simple, attributive, declaratory sentence , it affirms 
of " God " that he " is good;" therefore, " God " is the subject ; and 
" is good," the predicate. In this predicate, " good" is the attribute, and 
"is" the copula ; it is therefore here an attributive verb (604). 

Single Sentences. 

599. Single sentences (expressing only one 
complete proposition) are of three kinds. 

1. Simple, containing but one subject, one affirmer, 
and, if transitive or attributive, one object or attribute. 

In its most elementary form, these words are unmodified by any 
other; as, 

Horses run. John strikes Thomas. Sugar is sweet. 

The simple sentence may be enlarged. 1. By an adjunct 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR'. 

word, or phrase, in any or all of its parts ; as, " Wise men use rightly 
their time. 2. By the substitution of a clause for its subject, object, 
or attribute ; as, " To be angry is to be mad." " That men should lie 
is base." 

2. The single sentence may have two or more sub- 
jects, affirmers, objects, or attributes, or any or 

all of these may be compound; as, "Time and tide wait 
for no man." — "Henry and John lift the table." — "John and 
his sister study and recite grammar and arithmetic" — " The 
sky is bright and clear." 

3. The complex sentence is a siilgle sentence, con- 
taining a subordinate or dependent clause^ which 
limits the principal clause, or some part of it ; as, " The boy 
who studies will excel." — "If he study, he will improve ." 

Observations on the Single Sentence. 

600. 1. The subject of a verb or sentence is com- 
monly a noun or a pronoun ; as, "God is good; he 
does good." Also, it may be an infinitive with (seq.) 
or without a subject (394), a participial noun (462), 
a substantive phrase (593), or a clause of a sen- 
tence (635) ; as, "To lie is base." — "For us to lie is base." 
— "Lying is base." — "To do wrong hnoiuingly is base" — 
"That men should lie is base" (645). 

2. When the infinitive with a subject in the objective case 
(872) is used as the subject of a proposition, it is introduced by the 
particle for ; as, " For us to lie is base." 

3. When a clause of a sentence, consisting of a finite verb 
761) and its subject, is used as the subject of a proposition, it 
is introduced by the conjunction that ; as, " That men should lie is 



4. When the infinitive, or the clause of a sentence, as the sub- 
ject, follows the verb, the pronoun it precedes it, referring to the sub- 
ject (246. 2, 4.) ; as, " It is base that men should lie" — "It is base to 
lie." — " It is base/tfr us to lie" 

601. The predicate (that which is affirmed of the 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 169 

subject) properly consists of two parts — the attribute 
affirmed of the subject, and the copula by which the 
affirmation is made. 

Thus, in the sentence, " God is love," " God'* is the subject, and 
" is love " is the predicate, in which " love *' is the attribute, and " is ** 
the copula. 

Note. — The name of a person or thing addressed forms no 
part of the sentence ; as, " Lazarus, come forth." 

602. The attribute and copula are often expressed by one 
tvord, which in that case must always be a verb ; as, " The fire 
burns **=" The fire is burning.** 

603. The predicate may be a noun or pronoun, 
an adjective, sometimes a preposition with its 
case, or an adverb — also an infinitive, or clause 
of a sentence, connected with the subject by a copula — 
see examples (621 and 622) ; or it may be a Verb, which 
includes in itself both attribute and copula (602). 

604:. When a verb does not complete the predicate, but is used as 
a copula only, it is called an attributive verb ; as, " Home is 
sweet." 

605. The attributive verbs are such as to be, to become, to seem, to 
appear, and the passives of deem, style, call, name, consider, etc. 

606. The verbs to be, to appear, are sometimes also used as in- 
transitives ; as, " There are lions in Africa "==" Lions are in Africa." 
— " The stars appear." When so used, and the subject is placed after 
the verb, the sentence is introduced by the word there (529), as in the 
first example. 

EXEECISES. 

1. In the following, point out which are sentences, and why— which 
are phrases, and why. 

2. In the sentences, what is the subject, and why ? What is the 
predicate, and why. Also, which predicates are made by attributive 



Snow is white. — Ice is cold. — Birds fly. — Eoses blossom. 
—The tree is tall. — The fields are green. — Grass grows. — 
To say. nothing. — Man is mortal. — God is immortal. — 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Home is sweet.— Sweet is home. — Who is Paul ? — Has lie 
come ? — Will James go ? — Are you tired ? — At all events. 
— To be sure. 

3. Make sentences of which one of the following words shall be 
the subject, i. e. affirm something respecting each of them, and tell 
whether the sentences are transitive, intransitive, or attributive : — 

Trees, birds, horses, a sparrow, the stone, the thunder, 
the wind, the clouds, time, he. 

4. Analyze each of the sentences thus made, as directed above, 

No. 2. 

The Subject. 

607. I. The subject of a proposition is either gram- 
matical or logical 

603. The grammatical subject is the person or 
thing spoken of, unlimited by other words ; as, " Knoivl- 
edge is power." 

609. The logical subject is the person or thing 
spoken of, together with all the words, phrases, or clauses, 
by which it is limited or defined ; thus : — 

In the sentence, " Every man at his best state is vanity/' the 
grammatical subject is "man;" the logical is, "Everyman at Ids 
lest state" 

A relative clause may limit the grammatical subject, and in 
such case it is called an adjective adjunct ; as, " The boy who 
studies will improve "=(studious boy). 

610. When the grammatical subject has no limit- 
ing words connected with it, then the grammatical 
and the logical subject are the same; as, "God is 
good/' 

611. II. The subject of a proposition is either simple 
or compound. 

612.. A simple subject consists of one subject of 
thought (600) ; as, " Time is money ." 

613. A compound subject consists of two or more 



SYXTAS-AXALYSIS. 171 

simple subjects, to which belongs the same predicate ; as, 
a James and John are brothers/'—" You and I axe friends/' 
— - Two and three are fiye/V-" Time and tide wait for no 
man," * 

EXERCISES. 

L — l. In each of the following sentences point out the grammatical 
subject — the logical. 

The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. — 
"Wisdom's ways are pleasantness. — The love of money is the 
root of all evil. — Human knowledge is progressive. — Right- 
eousness exalteth a nation. 

II. — 1. In each of the following sentences point ont the subject — 
the predicate. 

2. State whether the subjects are simple or compound; limited or 
unlimited. In each, point out the grammatical subject — the logical 
subject. 

Peter and John went up into the temple.— Gold and 
silver are precious metals. — Locusts and wild honey were 
his food. — In. unity consist the welfare and security of 
society. — Three and three are six. — John and Jane are a 
handsome couple. 

3. Write predicates to the following compound subjects : — 

James and John. — He and she. — You and I. — The rich 
and poor. — Virtue and vice. — Heat and cold. — France and 
Mexico. — The sun and the moon. 



* The subject is here considered as compound, whether the predi- 
cate can be affirmed of each simple subject or not. Thus, we can say, 
1 Time waits for no man, and tide waits for no man ;" but we can not 
say, " Two are five, and three are five." Still, the preceding ex- 
amples — "Time and tide," and "two and three" — are equally con- 
sidered as compound subjects, because they consist each of more than 
one subject. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

614. A grammatical subject being a noun, 
may be modified, limited, or described, in various ways ; as, 

1. By a noun in apposition — i. e , a noun added in the same 

case for the sake of explanation (668) ; as, " Milton the poet was 
blind." 

2. By a noun in the possessive case ; as, " Aaron's rod bud- 

ded." (839). 

3. By an adjunct (541) ; as, " The works of Nature are beauti- 

ful." 

4. By an adjective word (that is, an article,* adjective, adjective 

pronoun, or participle) ; as, " The hour has arrived." — " A good 
name is better than riches." — " Your time is precious." — " Lost 
time can not be recovered." 

5. By a relative and its clause ; as, " He who does no good 

does harm." 

6. By an infinitive mood; as, "A desire to learn is praise- 

worthy." 

7. By a clause of a sentence (635) ; as, " The fact that he was 

a scholar was manifest." 

8. Each grammatical subject may have several modifi- 

cations ; as " Several stars of less magnitude, which we had 
not observed before, now appeared." 

615. A grammatical subject being a pronoun, is 
usually modified by a noun in apposition ; as, " I, 
Paul, would have come;" or by a relative clause, as in 
No. 5 above. 

Note. — Pronouns of the third person, and also relative pronouns, 
refer to their antecedents together with their modifications ; as, 
" Rebuke a wise man, and he will love thee." 

616. When the grammatical subject is an infinitive 



* Though for the reason assigned (192), the article is not properly 
a limiting word, yet, as it shows that the word is limited or modified 
in some way, it is here ranked among the modifiers. 



SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 173 

or a participle used as a noun, it may be modified like 
the verb in the predicate (630). 

EXERCISES. 

In the following propositions point ont the grammatical subject — 
the logical — and state how the grammatical subject is modified. 

All men are not wise. — Tall oaks from little acorns 
grow. — Milton's " Paradise Lost " is a work of great merit. 
— "Wisdom's ways are pleasantness. — The love of money is 
the root of all evil. — The disposition to do good should be 
cherished. — The walls of Babylon were fifteen miles long. — 
The effort to succeed will be crowned with success. 

Write sentences which have the subject modified by a noun in 
apposition — or a noun in the possessive case — or by an adjunct — or 
by an adjective word — or by an infinitive mood — or by a clause of a 
sentence. 

MODIFICATIONS OF MODIFYING WORDS. 

617. Modifying or limiting words may them- 
selves be modified : — 

1. A noun modifying another may itself be modified in all the 

ways in which a noun as a grammatical subject is modified 
(614). 

2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified : — 

1. By an adjunct ; as, " Be not weary in ic ell-doing." 

2. By an adverb ; as, " Truly virtuous men often endure 
reproach. " 

3. By an infinitive ; as, "Be swift to hear, and slow to 

speak." 

3. An adverb may be modified : — 

1. By an adjunct; as, "Agreeably to nature." 

2. By another adverb ; as, " Yours, very sincerely." 

618. A modified grammatical subject^regaxAei 
as a complex idea, may itself be modified ; as, The old 
Hack horse is dead. — The fiest two lines are good, the last 



174 ENGLISH GEAIIAE, 

two are bad. Here old, first, last — modifying each a sub- 
ject already modified, yiz. : Hack horse, two lines, two 
{lines). 

EXEECISES. 

1. In the following sentences, by what words are the modifying 
nouns modified? — the adjectives ? — the adverbs ? 

Solomon, the son of David, built the temple at Jerusa- 
lem.— Josephus, the Jewish historian, relates the destruc- 
tion of the temple. — That picture is a tolerably good copy 
of the original. — Pride, that never-failing vice of fools, is 
not easily defined. — The author of Junius's letters is still 
unknown. — Truly great men are far above worldly pride. 

2. Write ten simple sentences, and point out in each the subject 
and the predicate. In modified subjects, distinguish the grammatical 
and logical ; tell how each is modified (608, 609). 

The ^Predicate. 

619.— I. The predicate, like the subject (607), is 
either grammatical or logical. 

620. The grammatical predicate consists of the 
attribute and copula (601), not modified by other words. 

621. The attribute, which, together with the copula, forms the 
predicate, may be expressed by a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a 
participle, a preposition with its regimen, and sometimes an adverb ; 
as, " James is a scholar" — " James is he." — " James is diligent" — 
" James is learned." — •" James is in health" — " John is not so" 

622. The attribute is also expressed by an infinitive, or a depen- 
dent clause ; as, " To obey is to enjoy." — " The day is to be celebrated" 
— " The order is, that we must go" 

623. The logical predicate is the grammatical, with 
all the words, phrases, or clauses, that modify it ; thus, 

" Nero was cruel to his subjects.'* — " Was cruel " is the grammati- 
cal, and " was cruel to his subjects," the logical predicate. Again : 
" The Greeks took Troy by stratagem." — " Took " is the grammatical, 
and " took Troy by stratagem " is the logical predicate. - 



SYNTAX — PREDICATE. 175 

624. When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms 
connected with it, the grammatical and the logical predicates are the 
same ; as, " Life is short" — " The fire burns." 

625. — II. The predicate, like the subject, is either 
simple or compound (611). 

626. A simple predicate ascribes to its subject but 
one attribute ; as, " Life is short" — " Time flies" 

027 o A compound predicate consists of two or more 
simple predicates affirmed of the same subject ; as, " Caesar 
came, and saw, and conquered" — " Truth is great and will 
jprevail" 

Note. — Both the siibject and the predicate may be compound. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following" sentences, name the subject and predicate — state 
whether the predicate is simple or compound — distinguish the gram- 
matical and logical : — 

Man is mortal. — Wisdom is the principal thing. — God is 
good and merciful. — Honesty is praised and neglected.— 
The heart is the best and the worst part of man. — The use 
of travel is to widen the sphere of observation, and to en- 
able us to examine and judge of things for ourselves. — 
Avarice is a mean and cowardly vice. — Talent is strength 
and subtility of mind. — Genius is mental inspiration and 
delicacy of feeling. 



MODIFICATIONS OE THE PREDICATE, 

G28o A grammatical predicate may be modified or 
limited in different ways. 

629. When the attribute (601) in the grammatical 

predicate is a noun, it is modified — 

1. By a mown, or pronoun, limiting or describing the attribute ; 
as, " He is John Hie Baptist." — " He is my friend." — " He 
is my father's friend." 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. By an adjective or participle, limiting the attribute ; as, 
" Solomon was a wise king."—" It is a bird singing." 

630. When the affirmer contains the attribute (603), 
it is modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the object 

of the transitive verb ; as, " John reads Homer"—" I have 
heard him." 

2. By an adverb ; as, " John reads icell." 

3. By an adjunct (541) ; as, " They live in London." 

4. By an infinitive ; as, " Boys love to play." 

5. By a dependent clause ; as, «■ Plato taught that the soul is 

immortal." 

631. An infinitive or participle may be modified in all 
respects as the verb in the predicate (630). 

(132. A modifying clause, if a dependent proposition, may 
be modified in both its subject and predicate, as other propositions. 

633. All other modifying ivords may themselves be modi- 
fied, as similar words are when modifying the subject (614). 

634. Several modifications are sometimes connected with 
the same predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate — dis- 
tinguish the grammatical and logical predicate — show in what way 
the grammatical predicate is modified in the logical. 

Sincerity and truth form the basis of every virtue. — The 
coach will leave the city in the morning at sunrise. — The 
coach will leave the city when the mail is ready. — The 
atrocious crime of being a young man I shall attempt 
neither to palliate nor deny. His pretense was, that the 
storm prevented his attendance.— Time flies rapidly. — I 
confess that I am in fault. — William has determined to go. 
— They said, " Thou hast saved our lives." 

2. In the preceding exercises, show in which sentences, and by 
what words the modifiers of the predicate are themselves modified — 
also, in which the predicate has more than one modifier. 



SYNTAX — LIMITING CLAUSES. 177 

3. Write five sentences in which the principal verb is modified by 
a conditional clause. 

Limiting Clauses. 
635 '. Clauses limiting single sentences (or the mem- 
bers of compound sentences) may be classified as to their 
office into substantive, adnominal (adjective), and ad- 
verbial; and these may be subdivided, to exhibit their 
forms, mode of connection, and general bearing upon the 
structure of the sentence. 

636. The following is an elementary yiew : — 

( Propositional (1) 
Substantive, j Infinitive (2) . 

{Eelative (8). 
Infinitive (4). 
Participial (5). 
( Causal (8). 
Adverbial. j Comparative (7) . 

637. I- A substantive clause performs the office of a noun 
(subject or object). 

2. An adnominal clause limits like an adjective. 

3. An adverbial clause performs the office of an adverb. 

638. The following are examples, the numbers to correspond 
with those above : — 

(1). That I said so, is most true. — And he said, I know not. 

(2). To die for one's country is glorious. — He loves to do right. 

(3). The boy who studies will improve. — He whom thou lovest, is sick. 

(4). The master directed him to study. 

(5). Admired and applauded, he became vain. 

(6). He goes to school to learn. — He is anxious to succeed. 

(7). He is wiser than his brother. — Choose wisdom rather than gold. 

639. Note. — For more extended discussion of the complex sen- 
tence, see " Analysis and Composition," soon to be issued." 

640. In the analysis of sentences, the only form of words prop- 
erly to be regarded as a phrase, is the preposition with its regimen 
(593, 3). 

641. The nominative absolute (769, 1) is only an abbre- 
viated form of an adverbial clause ; as, " The sun having arisen (when 
the sun had risen), we pursued our journey.' , 



178 ENGLISH GEAIMAE. 

642. The dependent or limiting clause may often stand first, 
as, " When the sun set, we left." 

643* The clause on which another depends is called the lead- 
ing clause, and its subject the leading subject, and its predi- 
cate the leading predicate. A clause which is itself subordinate 
may be limited by another clause ; as, " I will go, if you desire 
it, after you have considered the matter well." 

644. In a complex single sentence, the dependent clauses are 
usually connected by relatives, conjunctive adverbs, or con- 
junctions (534) ; thus, 

Relative. — " That which can not be cured, must be endured/' 
Conjunctive Adverb. — " We shall go when the cars go." 
Conjunction. — " The miser lives poor, that he may die rich." 
In the first sentence, the relative not only stands as the subject of 
" can not be cured," but also connects its clause with the leading 
clause ; when connects the clauses in the second example ; and that 
in the third. 

645. When a clause connected by that, can be regarded either as 
the subject or object of the verb in the leading clause, it is in con- 
struction equivalent to a substantive, and the whole may be regarded 
as a simple sentence, though in form really complex. 

646. The ivords in every such clause must be parsed in their 
relations to each other, just as if the clause were independent. 

647 . The connecting word is sometimes omitted; as, " This 
is the book I lost ; I suppose you found it," for, " This is the book 
which I lost ; I suppose that you found it." 

648. A complex sentence may sometimes be con- 
verted into a simple one, by abridging its dependent 
clause. 

649. A dependent clause is frequently abridged by 
omitting the connecting word, and changing the yerb of 
the predicate into a participle or infinitive. 

650. The participle in the abridged clause will then stand either 
with its substantive in the case absolute (769), or as a modifier 
of the leading subject. Thus, Absolute — " When the boys have fin- 
ished their lessons we will play ; abridged, " The boys having finished 
their lessons, we will play." As a modifier — "When we have fin- 
ished our lessons, we will play ;" abridged, " Having finished our les- 



SYNTAX— LIMITING CLAUSES. 179 

sons, we will play." Passively and absolutely — " When our work is 
finished we will play ;" abridged, " Our work being finished, we will 
play." 

65 1, 1. When the attribute in the dependent clause consists 
of a noun or pronoun in the nominative case after the verb as a 
copula, it remains in the same case in the abridged form ; thus, " That 
he is & judge is of no consequence ;" abridged, " His being & judge is of 
no consequence." — "I was not aware that he was a judge ;" abridged, 
" I was not aware of his being a judge " (799.) 

2. The difference between these two modes of expression is this : 
In the full form, the idea contained in the dependent clause is 
affirmed ; in the abridged form, it is assumed, 

652, 1. When the dependent clause is the object of the verb in 
the leading clause, it may often be changed for the infinitive ivitli 
a subject ; as, "I know that he is a scholar ;" abridged, " I know 
him to be a scholar." 

2. "When, in such cases, the subject of the dependent 

clause is the same as the subject of the principal, it is omitted in the 
abridged form ; as, " I wished that I might go ;" abridged, " I wished 
to go." 

653, When the subject of the dependent clause, connected by 
what, which, whom, where, when, how, and the like, and relating to 
something yet future, is the same as that of the independent 
one, it is sometimes abridged by retaining the connecting word, and 
omitting the subject before the infinitive ; as, " I know not what 
1 shall do ;" abridged, "I know not what to do." In this way are to 
be analyzed and explained such phrases as " Where to go," " when to 
read," " how to do," " whom to send," etc. 

65 4, A dependent clause may often be abridged by substituting 
an equivalent qualifying word, or an adjunct ; as, " The man who is 
honest will be respected ;" abridged, " The honest man will be re- 
spected." — " When the sun set we returned ;" abridged, "At sunset we 
returned." 

655, Several dependent clauses may be variously con- 
nected with the same leading clause, and abridged in the same man- 
ner as above ; as, " When they arrived at the station, they were in- 
formed that the cars had passed, an hour before ;" abridged, " Having 
arrived [or, on arriving] at the station, they were informed of the 
cars having passed an hour before." 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Abridge such propositions in the preceding exercises as can be 
abridged. 

2. Extend the following abridged propositions : — 

Haying doubled Cape Horn, we sailed in a direct course 
for California. — Vfhat to do I know not. — No one can tell 
us where to go, or how to do. — The war being at an end, 
the troops were disbanded.— At the close of navigation, 
many will be at a loss where to go. — The industrious and 
capable need fear no want.— A good name is the richest 
possession we have while living, and the best legacy we 
leave behind us when dead. — Of his having been successful, 
we have full assurance. — Of his being successful now, there 
is reason to doubt. 

3. In the following sentences, what connecting words are omitted ? 
Pay me that thou owest. — It is said he can not pay his 

debts. — There is no doubt he is a man of integrity. — I am 
sure we can never accomplish this without assistance. — 
That is all you know. — All you can find is yours. — Could 
we have foreseen this difficulty, we might have avoided it. 
— I soon perceived I had still the power of motion. 

Compound Sentences. 
656. A Compound sentence consists of two or 
more single sentences or propositions (591,2) connected to- 
gether ; as, " The man walked, and the boy ran." * 

1. The propositions which make up a compound sentence are 
called members. In the preceding compound sentence, the mem- 
bers are, " The man walked " and " The boy ran." 

2. The members of a compound sentence are co-ordinate, 
or grammatically independent of each other; each will 
make sense by itself. 

* Under compound sentences are sometimes included such as have 
only one principal clause, modified by a subordinate clause or 
clauses. It is believed, however, that the classification here given is 
more rational and consistent. 



SYNTAX — COMPOUND SENTENCES. 181 

EXEKCISES. 

In the following sentences, state which are single, and which are 
compound. In the compound sentences, point out the members. 

If we have not always time to read, we have always time 
to reflect. — We have not always time to read, but we have 
always time to reflect. — The poor is hated even of his own 
neighbor, but the rich hath many friends. — The eyes of the 
Lord are in every place, beholding the evil and the good. — 
Eighteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to 
any people. — Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty 
spirit before a fall.— Death and life are in the power of the 
tongue. — Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. — 
The slothful man saith, " There is a lion in the way." — 
When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. 

In the preceding simple sentences and members, point out the sub- 
ject and predicate, with their respective modifications. 

657. Connection of Members. 

The members of a compound sentence are connected 
by such conjunctions as and, or, not, but, yet, and 
the like ; as, " The harvest is past, the summer is ended, 
and we are not saved." 

In such sentences, the connective is often omitted; and 

generally, when the sentence consists of more than two members, it 
is omitted in all except the last, as in the above example (658). 

EXEECISES. 

In the following compound sentences, name the independent clauses 
— name the connecting words — state which may also be regarded as 
simple sentences (646). 

The weather was fine, and the roads were excellent, but 
we were unfortunate in our companions. — Beauty attracts 
admiration, as honor [attracts] applause. — Talent is en- 
vironed with many perils, and beauty [is environed] with 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

many weaknesses. — Time is ever advancing, but leaves 
behind it the traces of its flight. — When I was a child, I 
thought as a child; but when I became a man, I put away 
childish things. — I will come again and receive you to my- 
self, that where I am, there ye may be also. — This we 
know, that our future depends on our present. 

658. Directions for Analysis, 

State whether the sentence is simple or compound ; tran- 
sitive, intransitive, or attributive; declaratory, interroga- 
tory, imperative, or exclamatory. 

If simple, its class ; name the logical subject and the logi- 
cal predicate. 

[State the principal and subordinate elements (594).] 

Name the grammatical subject. 

Show by what words, phrases, or clauses, if any, the 
grammatical subject is modified in the logical. 

Show by what modifying words, phrases, or clauses, if 
any, each modifying word is modified. 

Name the grammatical predicate. 

Show by what words, phrases, or clauses, if any, the 
grammatical predicate is modified in the logical. 

Show by what modifying words, phrases, or clauses, if 
any, each modifying word is modified. 

State the elements in their order. 

If the sentence is compound, mention the members. 

Show how the members are connected. 

Analyze each member as a single sentence, by showing 
its subject, predicate, etc., as above. 

In analyzing sentences, it will be necessary always to supply 
words left out by ellipsis, and to supply the antecedent to the rela- 
tive what, and to the compound relatives whoever, whosoever, what- 
ever, whatsoever ; making also the change which is necessary in the 
relatives themselves, when the antecedent is supplied (286). 



SYNTAX — MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 183 

G59. MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 

Note. — In single complex sentences, the whole sentence consists 
of one logical subject and one logical predicate. 

A dependent clause is always an adjunctive element, and 
limits or modifies some part of the principal proposition. 

In compound and complex sentences, the distinction of transitive, 
intransitive, etc., may be referred to the separate members or clauses. 

In declaratory sentences, that distinction may, for brevity, be 
omitted. 

1. "God is good." 

This is a single sentence, simple ; it contains a single affirmation 
(591). 

Attributive, it affirms the attribute good of the subject God. 

Declaratory, it directly affirms. 

God is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality 
good is affirmed. 

Is good is the logical predicate, because it affirms a quality of its 
subject. Is is the verb or copula, and good is the attribute. 

In this sentence the grammatical subject and predicate are the same 
as the logical, because they are not modified by other words (610 and 
624). 

Or, more briefly, thus : — 

The logical subject is God. 

The logical predicate is is good, in which is is the verb or copula, 
and good the attribute. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

2. " The sun and moon stood still." 

This is a single sentence, intransitive, declaratory, with a compound 
subject. 

The logical subject is The sun and moon. 

The logical predicate is stood still. 

The grammatical'subject is sun and moon, compound, and connected 
by and, both modified by the (614, 4, Note, and 711). 

The grammatical predicate is stood, modified by still, an adverb, ex- 
pressing manner. 

3. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
This is a single sentence, simple, attributive, declaratory. 

The logical, subject is The fear of the Lord. 



184 ENGLISH GEAMMAE, 

The logical predicate is is the beginning of wisdom. 

The grammatical subject is fear. It is limited by the adjunct 
phrase, of the Lord, and shown to be limited by the article the (614, 
4, Note). 

The grammatical predicate is is beginning, in which is is the verb 
or copula, and beginning the attribute. It is limited by the adjunct, 
of wisdom, and shown to be limited by the. 

4. "A good man does what (=that which) is right, from 
principle." 

This is a single sentence, complex, containing one leading affirma- 
tion and one dependent clause, connected by which. 

The logical subject of the whole sentence is A good man; the logi- 
cal predicate is, does what is right from principle. 

The leading affirmation is A good man does that from principle. 

The dependent clause is which is right, and is restrictive of that in 
the leading proposition, the antecedent to which, the connecting word. 

In the first or leading clause — 

The logical subject is A good man. 

The logical predicate is does that from principle. 

The grammatical predicate is man, qualified by good, and shown to 
be indefinite by a. 

The grammatical predicate is does, modified by its object that, and 
the adjunct from principle ; that is modified by the relative clause. 

In the second, or dependent clause — 

The logical subject is which. It also connects its clause with the 
antecedent that, and restricts it. 

The logical predicate is is right, in which is is the verb or copula, 
and right is the attribute. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical 
(610 and 624). 

5. " There is nothing which all mankind venerate and 
admire so much as simple truth." 

This is a single sentence, complex, consisting of one leading propo- 
sition, and two dependent clauses ; attributive, declaratory. 

The independent proposition is There is nothing. 

The first dependent clause is which all mankind venerate and ad- 
mire so much, connected to the preceding by which. 

The second dependent clause, connected by as to the preceding, as 
its leading member, is [they venerate and admire], simple truth. 



SYNTAX — MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 185 

In the first, or independent proposition — 

The logical subject is nothing —not any thing. 

The logical predicate is is. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 
There is an introductory expletive, used in such sentences when the 
subject follows the verb. 

In the second proposition, dependent on the first — 

The logical subject is all mankind. 

The logical predicate is venerate and admire which so much. 

The grammatical subject is mankind, modified by all. 

The grammatical predicate is venerate and admire, compound, con- 
nected by and, and modified by their object, which, which also con- 
nects its clause with its antecedent, thing, for the purpose of restrict- 
ing it ; it is also modified by the adverbial phrase, so much. 

In the third proposition, connected with the second by as — 

The logical subject is they, understood (for all mvankind). 

The logical predicate is venerate and admire simple truth. 

The grammatical subject is they, or the same as in the preceding 
clause. 

The grammatical predicate is venerate and admvre understood, 
modified by their object, truth, and that is qualified by the adjective, 
simple. 

6. " Conversation makes a man wax wiser than himself, 
and that more by an hour's discourse than by a day's medi- 
tation." 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two single sentences, 
connected by and ; each of them complex, and having its own depen- 
dent clause. 

The first independent clause is Conversation makes a man [to] wax 
wiser. Its dependent clause is himself [is], connected by than. 

The second independent clause is [he does] that more by an hour's 
discourse. Its dependent clause is [he does] by a day's meditation, 
connected by than. 

(The words supplied are included in brackets). 

In the first independent clause — 

The logical subject is conversation. 

The logical predicate is makes a man [to] wax wiser than himself. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is makes, modified by its object man, 
which is also the subject of the verb to wax (872). It is shown to be 



186 ENGLISH GSAIIAR. 

used indefinitely by a, and is qualified by the predicative adjective 
wiser, which is modified by the clause tlian himself. 

In the clause dependent on the preceding, and connected by than — 

The logical subject is himself (in the nominative) (249). 

The logical predicate is is (understood). 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

In the second independent proposition, connected to the first by 
and — 

The logical subject is he understood (for a man). 

The logical predicate is [does] that more by an hour's discourse, etc. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is does (understood). It is modified by 
its object that, representing the phrase wax wiser than himself ; also 
by the adverb more, and the adjunct by discourse; and discourse is 
limited by hour's, which again is shown to be indefinite by the article 
an. 

In the clause dependent on the preceding, and connected by than — 

The logical subject is he {a man) understood. 

The logical predicate is [c^s] by a day's meditation. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is does (understood as before), modified 
by the adjunct by meditation; meditation is limited by day's, and 
that is shown to be indefinite by the article a 

7. " The minutest plant or animal, if attentively exam- 
ined, affords a thousand wonders, and obliges ns to admire 
and adore the Omnipotent hand by which it was created." 

This is a single sentence, comples, consisting of one independent 
proposition, and two dependent clauses. 

The independent proposition is Th3 minutest plant or animal affords 
a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipo- 
tent hand. 

The first dependent clause is [it is] attentively examined, connected 
as ar condition by if to the leading verbs affords and obliges. 

The second dependent clause is by which it was created, connected 
also by which to hand in order to describe it. 

In the independent clause — 

The logical subject is The minutest plant or animal. 

The logical predicate is if attentively examined, affords a thousand 
wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent hand by 
which it was created. 



SYNTAX — MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 187 

The grammatical subject is plant and animal, compound ; its parts 
are connected as alternates by or (570), and both modified by minutest. 

The grammatical predicate is affords and obliges, compound ; its 
parts are connected by and. Affords is modified by its object icon- 
ders, which is limited by a thousand. Obliges is modified by its object 
us, the infinitive to admire and to adore, of which us is also the sub- 
ject ; and these infinitives are modified by their object hand, which is 
qualified and described by Omnipotent, and the relative clause by 
which it was created. The verbs affords and obliges are modified also 
by the conditional clause if [it is] attentively examined. [Or, obliges 
is modified by the objective clause "us to admire and adore/' etc., of 
which us is the subject, and admire and adore the Omnipotent hand, 
etc., is the logical predicate. This clause is itself complex, having the 
dependent relative clause, " by which it was created;'' limiting hand.] 

In the first dependent clause — 

The logical subject is it, referring xo plant or animal. 

The logical predicate is is attentively examined. 

The grammatical subject is it. 

The grammatical predicate is is examined ; which is modified by 
the adverb of manner, attentively. 

In the second dependent clause — 

The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal. 

The logical predicate is was created; by which. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is was created. It is modified by the 
adjunct by which, referring to hand, its antecedent. 

The preceding process of analysis, which takes up so 
much room on paper, may be accomplished orally with 
great rapidity. Let this be done in the following 

" EXERCISES. 
Li the same way, analyze the following sentences : — 

Knowledge is power. — Truth is the basis of honor : it is 
the beginning of virtue : it liyeth and conquereth for ever. 
— Time is a gift bestowed on us by the bounty of Heaven. 
— The heart and the tongue are the best and the worst 
parts of man. 

Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Praise is more acceptable to the heart than profitable to 
the mind. 

He who is first to condemn will often be the last to for- 
give. 

True religion gives order and beauty to the world, and, 
after life, a better existence. 

A little philosophy carries us away from truth, while a 
greater brings us back to it again. 

What we know is nothing ; but what we are ignorant of 
is immense. 

Books which save the trouble of thinking, and inven- 
tions which save the labor ot working, are in universal 
demand. 

Some cultivate philosophy in theory who are imperfect 
philosophers in practice ; as others advocate religion, who 
are nevertheless indifferently religious. 



Construction of Sentences. 

680c Words are arranged in sentences according 
to certain rules called the Rules of Syntax (662 and 
666). 

661. General Principles. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb and its 
subject^ expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, 
or participle, must have a substantive (109), expressed 
or understood. 

3. Every subject has its own verb, expressed or un- 
derstood. 

4 Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the in- 
finitive or participles) has its own stibject in the nomina- 
tive case, expressed or understood. 



SYNTAX — COKSTRUCTIOK OF SENTENCES. 189 

5. Every possessive case limits a noun or substan- 
tive. 

6. Every objective case is the object of a transitive 
verb in the active voice, or of a preposition, or denotes 
circumstances of time, value, weight, or measure (828). 

7. The infinitive mood depends upon a verb, adjec- 
tive, or noun. 

8. Every adverb limits a verb, adjective, or adverb. 

9. Conjunctions unite words and phrases that stand 
in the same relation in a sentence. 

The exceptions to these general principles will appear 
under the Eules of Syntax. 

Tarts of Syntax. 

662. The Rules of Syntax may all be referred 
to three heads, viz., Concord or agreement, Govern- 
ment, and Position. 

663. Concord is the agreement which one 
word has with another in gender, number, case, or 
person. 

664. Government is the power which one 
word has in determining the mood, tense, or case of 
another word. The word governed by another word 
is called its regimen. 

665. Position means the place which a word 
occupies in relation to other words in a sentence. 

666. In the English language, which has but few in- 
flections, the meaning of a sentence often depends much 
on the position of the words of which it consists. 



190 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule I. — Substantives denoting the same person or thing 

agree in case ; as, 

The river Thames, — Cicero the orator — Paul the apostle. — I my- 
self. — I Paul have written it. — I Wisdom dwell with Prudence. 

Rule II. — 1. An adjective or participle qualifies the sub- 
stantive to which it belongs ; as, 

A good boy ; a new book ; an old hat ; a rough road ; a steep hill ; 
a lofty mountain ; God is good ; an amusing story ; a man loved by 
all. 

2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the singular; 
adjectives denoting more than one, qualify nouns in the plural; 
as, 

One man ; this book ; that house ; two men ; these books ; those 
houses ; the sixth day ; several weeks ; many sorrows ; this court 
(676, etc.). 

Rule III. — 1. The article a or an is put before common nouns in 
the singular number, when used indefinitely ; as, 

A man ; a house ; a tree ; an acorn ; an hour ; a history ; an his- 
torical fact ; a youth ; a unit (186-187 and 707). 

2. The article the is put before common nouns, either singular 
or plural 9 when used definitely ; as, 

" The sun shines." — " The moon rises." — " The city of New York/ 9 
— " The age of improvement." — " The seven stars." — " The twelve 
Csesars." — " The most virtuous (men) are the most happy " (707, 2). 

Rule IV.— Personal pronouns agree with the words for 
which they- stand in gender, number, and person ; as, 

" All that a man hath he will give for his life." — " A tree is known 
by its fruit."—" The court has finished its business."—" The people 
elect their rulers " (729, etc.). 

Rule V— The relative agrees with its antecedent in num- 
ber and person ; as, 

"The man who speaks."— " The book which was lost."— " The 
friends whom we love." — " Ye who love mercy."—" I that speak to 
y 0U# »__« The best thing you can do " (742, etc.). 



SYNTAX — R ULES. 191 

Rule VI.— The subject of a finite verb is put in the nomina- 
tive; as, 

"I am."— "Thou speakest."— " He reads."— "We talk."— " Time 
flies."— "Who did that?"— "I know who did it."— "Do you know 
who is to blame ?"— " He is taller than I (am) ; than she (is)" (760). 

Rule VII. — A substantive whose case depends on no other 
word is put in the noniinativ e absolute; as, 

" The ship having arrived, all is safe."—" He being alone, there 
was no one to disturb him."—" Your fathers, where are they ?", — " Or 
I only and Barnabas, have not we power to forbear working?" — " O 
Absalom ! my son, my son !"— " Plato, thou reasonest well " (768, 
etc.). 

Rule VIII.— A verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person; as, 

" I write."—" Thou writest."— " He reads."—" We sell."—" They 
buy." — "John and James are brothers." — " Jane or Mary is at home." 
— " The army is on its march." — " The people are kind." — " Come 
(ye) and see." — " Go thou and do likewise." — " Who art thou ?" (776, 
etc.). 

Rule IX. — The predicate substantive after an attributive 
verb is put in the same case as the subject before it ; as, 

" I am he." — " Ye are they who justify yourselves." — " God i3 love." 
— " Who do men say that I, the Son of man, am ?" — " He is said to be 
a good man." — " They represent him to be a good man." — " Saying is 
not doing" (796, etc.). 

Rule X. — A substantive being the object of a transitive 

verb in the active voice, is put in the objective case ; as, 

" We love him."—" He loves us."—" Whom shall I send ?"— " Send 
me." — " Honor thy father and mother." — " Them that honor me I will 
honor." — " Boys love to play." — " Boys love playing."—" I know 
that thou fearest God." — " Jesus I know, and Paul I know ; but who 
art thou ?" (801, etc.). 

Rule XI. — A substantive being the object of a preposition 

is put in the objective case ; as, 

" Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things ; to whom 
be glory for ever." — " To whom much is given, of him much shall be 
required." — " Come with us, and we will do (to) thee good." — " Science 
they do not pretend to." — " Whom did he speak to ?" (818, etc.). 



192 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

Rule XII. — Certain tvords and phrases should be followed 
by appropriate prepositions ; as, 

" Confide in " — " dispose of" — " adapted to " — " swerve from " — etc. 
(834, etc.). 

Rule XIII. — A substantive that limits the signification of 
another, must be put in the possessive case ; as, 

" Pom pey's pillar." — "Virtue's reward." — "For conscience' sake." 
— " The duke of Wellington's funeral." — " The secretary of state's 
office"-— " Whose pen is this ?" — " It is John's : it is not mine " (241). 
— "It came from the stationer's." — "Sheldon & Co.'s warehouse" 
(839, etc.). 

Rule XIV, — The subjunctive mood is used in dependent 
clauses, when both contingency or doubt, and futurity, are 

expressed; as, 

"Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." — "If he study, he 
will improve." — " If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke."— 
" See thou do it not" (857, etc.). 

Rule XV. — The infinitive mood is governed by verbs, 
nouns, or adjectives ; as, 

"I desire to learn." — "A desire to learn." — "Anxious to learn." — 
" To do good and to communicate, forget not." — " To perform is bet- 
ter than to promise." — " Fools who came to scoff, remained to pray." 
— " Let us go." — " You need not go " (865, etc.). 

Rule XVI. — Participles have the construction of nouns, ad- 
jectives, and verbs; as, 

(Noun). — " Saying is not doing." — " In the keeping of his com- 
mandments." — "A forsaking of the truth." — "Avoid doing evil." — 
(Adjective). — " The sword hangs rusting on the wall." — "A bound 
book." — " The lost sheep." (Verb). — " Having loved his own, he 
loved them to the end." — " The men stood speechless, hearing a voice, 
but seeing no man " (890, etc.). 

Rule XVII. — In the use of verbs, and words that in point of 
time relate to each other, the order of time must be observed ; 
as, 

" I have known him many years." — " I expected he would come " 
(not " would have come "). — " I expect he will come." — " It would 
have been easy to do it " (not " to have done it ") — " I expected to go " 
(not " to have gone ") (908, etc.). 

Rule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs; as, 



SYNTAX — APPOSITION. 193 

" Jolm speaks distinctly ; lie is remarkably diligent, and reads very 
correctly." — " Julia sings well." — " The day is far spent." — " When 
win you return ?"— " Soon " (922, etc.). 

Rule XIX. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases 9 or 
sentences ; as, 

" You and he must go, but I stay at home." — " Honor thy father 
and thy mother." — " He or his brother is to blame." — " They can 
neither read nor write." — " He is slow, but sure." — " While the 
earth remaineth, seedtime and harvest, and cold and heat, and sum- 
mer and winter, and day and night, shall not cease " (944, etc.). 

Rule XX. — Interjections have no grammatical connection with 
the other words in a sentence ; as, 

" O ye of little faith !"— " Ah me !"— " cruel thou !"— " Envious ! 
of David Gfarrick ? Poh ! poh ! Pshaw ! pshaw !" (970, etc.). 

General Mule. 

In every sentence, the %vovds employed, and the order 

in which they are arranged, should be such as clearly and 
properly to express the idea intended ; and, at the same 
time, all the parts of a sentence should correspond, and a 
regular and dependent construction be preserved 
throughout (973). 

Ellipsis. 

Rule 1. — An ellipsis, or omission of words, is admissible, when 
they can be supplied by the mind with such certainty and readiness 
as not to obscure the sense ; as, 

" We walked by faith, not by sight " (977, etc.). 

Rule 2. — An ellipsis is not allowable when it would obscure the 
sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety (979, 
etc.). 



Substantives in Apposition. 

667. Eule I. — Substantives denoting the same 
person or thing, agree in case (162) ; as, 

" Cicero the orator" — " I Paul have written it." — " We, tlie people 
of the United States." — " Ye icoods and icilds" — " This was said to us 
men" — "The river Thames" — "Jane and Eliza, Mary's cousins" — 



194 ENGLISH GRAM MAE. 

" The chief of tlie princes, he who defied the enemy," etc. — " That 
was related of Dr. West, him who translated Pindar." 

668. The word annexed is said to be in apposition with the 
other, and is added to express some attribute, description, or 
appellation, belonging to it. The words so related must always 
be in the same member of the sentence — that is, both in the subject, 
or both in the predicate. A substantive predicated of another is 
not in apposition with it, though denoting the same thing. 

The substantive in apposition commonly stands last ; sometimes 
first. 

669. Two or more words forming one complex name, or a 
name and a trfle prefixed, though really in apposition, are properly 
inflected and parked as one word ; as, " George Washington"—" Gene- 
ral Washington' sStent." In such examples, the sign of the possessive 
is annexed only to the last (848), and sometimes also when the words 
in apposition do liot form a complex name ; as, " We arrived at our 
friend Wilson's plantation." 

For the plural of proper names with titles prefixed, see 161. 

670. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sen- 
tence, and a sentence sometimes in apposition with a noun ; as, " The 
weather forbids walking, a prohibition hurtful to us both." — " The 
promise, that he should be the heir of the world, was given to 
Abraham." — " Delightful task, to rear the tender thought I" (807, 4.) 

671. A. plural term is sometimes used in apposition after two or 
more substantives singular, to combine and give them emphasis; as, 
" Time, labor, money, all were lost." Sometimes the same substantive 
is repeated for the sake of emphasis ; as, " Cisterns, broken cisterns." 

672. Distributive words are sometimes put in apposition 
with a plural substantive ; as, " They went each of them on his 
way " (301). — " They all went, some one way, and some another." In 
the construction of a sentence, the distributive word is sometimes 
omitted ; as, " They [interrogative pronouns] do not relate [each] to 
a preceding noun." 

67 3. Of this character are such expressions as the following : 
" They stood in each other's way " — that is, they stood each in the 
other's way. — " They love one another " — that is, they love, one (loves) 
another (311). 

674:. A substantive is sometimes connected with another in a sort 
of apposition by the word as, meaning in the condition of, in the capa- 



SYNTAX — APPOSITION. 195 

city of; thus, "Cicero as au orator was bold — as a soldier, he was 
timid." But here — the reverse of the former case (G69) — the substan- 
tive in apposition with another in the possessive case, or with a pos- 
sessive pronoun, is without the sign, while the other has it ; as, 
"John's reputation as an author was great — His fame as an artist 
still greater." 

675. In designating time and place, instead of a noun in 
apposition, a preposition with its case is often used ; as, " The month 
of August."— " The State of Okto."—" The city of JSTew York.'' 

Throughout the exercises in syntax— first, correct the 

errors ; secondly, analyze orally the sentences so cor- 
rected ; thirdly, parse all the words etymologically ; 
and last* parse syntactically the word or words to 
which the rule refers. 

The pupils should be required to frame oral and written 
sentences under each rule. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, what words are in apposition, and to 
what ? In what case do they agree ? Give the rule : — 

Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity. — Byron the 
poet, the only son of Captain John Byron, was born in 1788. — My 
brother William's estate has been sold. — Coleridge, a remarkable 
man, and rich, imaginative poet, was the friend of Wordsworth. 
"And on the palace floor, a lifeless corse she lay." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

[As the nominative and the objective case in nouns are alike in 
English, there is no liability to error under this rule, except in the 
case of pronouns.] 

Please give that book to my brother William, he who stands by 
the window. — The gentleman has arrived, him whom I mentioned 
before. — Do you speak so to me, I who have so often befriended you ? 
— I speak of Virgil, he who wrote the iEneid. — I saw the travelers, 
they whom we met yesterday. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



An Adjective with a Substantive. 

676. Eule EL— 1. An adjective or participle 

qualifies the substantive to which it belongs (196) ; as, 
" A good man/ 9 

2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the sin- 
gular : adjectives denoting more than one, qualify 
nouns in the plural ; as, " This man/' — " These men."-— 
"Six feet" 

677. Adjectives denoting one are the ordinals, first, second, third, 
etc. (204), last; this, that; one, each, every, either, neither; much, and 
its comparative more; all, denoting quantity, enough, whole. 

678. When any of these is joined to & plural noun, the whole 
is regarded as one aggregate ; as, " The first two weeks " — " Every 
ten miles" — "The last four lines" — "The last days of summer, }> 
etc. But the verb after such subjects is usually plural. 

679* In such expressions the cardinal number, if small, may pre- 
cede the words first and last, but not the other cardinals ; as, " The 
two first weeks " — " The four last lines " (704, 3) ; meaning the two 
weeks at the beginning or preceding all the rest — the four lines at the 
end, or succeeding all the rest. 

680. Two or more adjectives, expressing qualities that belong to 
different objects of the same name, and that name expressed! 
only with .the last, should have an article before each; as, " The 
red and the white rose " — that is, two roses, the one red and the other 
white. So, " The first and the second page." It has become common, 
however, even with good writers, to drop the second article, and change 
the singular into the plural to express the same idea ; thus, " The 
first and second pages " — " The first and second verses, etc. This 
mode of expression, though incorrect in itself, is less stiff and formal 
than the other. (See Appendix X.) When adjectives denoting 
one are connected by the distributives, or, nor, etc, the noun 
must be singular. 

681. Adjectives denoting more than one, are the following, 
viz. : all cardinal numbers above one ; as, two, three, etc. ; few, many, 
with its comparative more ; all, denoting number ; both, several, and 
enow. Enow is nearly obsolete. 

682. Adjectives without a substantive expressed are often 



SYNTAX — ADJECTIVES. 197 

used as nouns ; as, "The rich and the 'poor meet together" (201). 
This is especially common with all adjective pronouns except the 
posssessives, and the distributive every; as, " Of books, some are good, 
some are bad." — " All things come alike to all " (289). 

683. Adjectives are sometimes used indeflinitely after an in- 
finitive or participle, without reference to any particular substan- 
tive, to express an abstract idea ; as, " To be good is to be happy." — 
" Being good is better than being great." 

684:. When an adjective is a predicate (621), it must qualify 
its substantive in the subject ; as, "God is good, he is also just"— 
" To do good to others is profitable to ourselves." — " That men should 
lie is base." 

685. An adjective in the predicate sometimes qualifies the subject, 
not considered simply as a substantive, but as a substantive affected 
by the action of the connecting verb, which, in that case may 
be regarded as a strengthened or modified copula (601) ; as, " That 
type stands low." — " This fruit tastes bitter" — " The wind blows cold" 
— " The door is painted green." — " John grows tall." — " Milk turns 
sour." — " Clay burns white." — " Down feels soft." 

686. Adjectives thus used are sometimes, though improperly 
called adverbial adjectives. As the adverb is sometimes used impro- 
perly instead of the adjective in such expressions, the distinction 
should be carefully marked. Thus — 

The adverb expresses the manner of the act. 

The adjective expresses the condition or state of the sub- 
ject. ■ 
Hence, when the meaning intended can be expressed by the corre- 
sponding -adjunct (541), the adverb should be used ; as, " The stream 
flows rapidly " (in a rapid manner). Here the adverb rapidly modifies 
the verb flows. But when the meaning can be expressed nearly by 
substituting the verb to be or to become as a copula, the adjective 
should be used ; as, " The stream grows [becomes] rapid." This is 
further illustrated by the following examples, viz. :— 

ADJECTIVE. ADVERBS. 

John grows [becomes] old. John grows rapidly [in a rapid manner.] 
She looks [is] cold. She looks coldly [in a cold manner] on him. 

He feels [is] warm. He feels warmly [in a warm manner] the 

insult. 
The eagle flies [is] high. The eagle flies swiftly [in a swift manner.] 
The apple tastes [is] sweet. Mary sings sweetly [in a sweet manner.] 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

687* Adjectives should not be used as adverbs; thus, mis- 
erable poor," should be, " miserably poor " — " sings elegant" should 
be, "sings elegantly" So, also, adverbs should not be used as ad- 
jectives (925) ; thus, " He arrived safely" should be, " He arrived 
safe. 9 * 

688. This here, that there, them books, are vulgarisms, 
for this, that, those books. 

689. An adjective sometimes qualifies an adjective and 
noun together as one compound term ; as, " A venerable old man." 
" The best black tea." 

690. Sometimes an adjective modifies the meaning of an- 
other adjective ; as, " red-hot iron " — " A bright-red color." 

691. Several adjectives frequently qualify the same sub- 
stantive; as, "A large, strong, black horse." 

This, That; These, Those. 

692. When two or more objects are contrasted, this refers to the 
last mentioned, that to the first ; as, Virtue and vice are opposite qual- 
ites ; that enobles the mind, this debases it." 

693. Former and latter are used in the same way (304). So 
also, the one, the other, referring to words in the singular or 
plural (307). 

694. When no contrast is expressed, this refers to a thing near 
or just mentioned, and that to a thing more remote or formerly 
mentioned. 

Construction of Comparatives and Superlatives. 

695. When one object is compared with one other of the same 
class, or with more than one of a different class, indvid- 
ually, or in the aggregate, the comparative is used ; as, " James 
is the weaker of the two " — " He is taller than his father " — " He is 
taller than any of his brothers." 

696. Sometimes, however, when two objects of the same class 
are compared, the superlative is used, being thought to be less stiff 
and formal ; as, " James is the weakest of the two." 

697. When one object is compared with more than one of 
the same class, the superlative is used, and commonly has the pre- 
fixed (713) ; as, " John is the tallest amongst as." — " He is the best 
scholar in a class of ten." — " He is the most diligent of them all." 



SYNTAX — ADJECTIVES. 199 

098. In the use of the comparative and superlative, when more 
than two objects are compared, the following distinction should be 
carefully observed : — 

699. When the comparative is used, the latter term of com- 
parison must always exclude the former; "Eve was fairer than 
any of her daughters." — " Russia is larger than any other country in 
Europe." — "China has a greater population than any nation of 
Europe," or " than any other nation on the globe." Thus used, the 
comparative requires than after it (963, 2). 

700. When the superlative is used, the latter term of com- 
parison must always include the former ; " Russia is the largest 
couutry in Europe." — " China has the greatest population of any 
nation on the globe." 

701. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper; thus, 
"James is more taller than John" — omit more; "He is the most 
icisest of the three u — omit most. 

702. The double comparative lesser, however, is sanctioned by 
good authority ; as, " Lesser Asia " — " Every lesser thing." — N. T. 
He-view. — " Like lesser streams." — Coleridge. 

70S. Adjectives not admitting comparison (223) should 
not be compared, nor connected with comparative words, such as so, 
as, and the like. Thus, more universal, so universal, as universal, 
should be more general, so general, as general; and so of similar 
words. As exceptions see 224. 

Position of Adjectives. 

704. An adjective is commonly placed before its 
substantive ; as, " A good man " — " A virtuous woman." 

1. Adjectives should be placed as near asjiossihle to their sub- 
stantives, and so that it may be certain to what noun they belong ; 
thus, " A new pair of shoes " — " A fine field of corn " — "A good glass 
of wine," should be, " A pair of new shoes " — " A field of fine corn " 
— "A glass of good wine," — because the adjectives qualify shoes, 
corn, wine, and not pair, field, glass. When ambiguity can not other- 
wise be avoided, the use of the hyphen may be resorted to with advan- 
tage ; thus, " A good marts coat " — " A good marts-coat." 

2. When an adjective qualifies two or more substantives, con- 
nected by and 9 it is usually expressed before the first, and understood 
to the rest ; as, " A man of great wisdom and moderation." 



200 ENGLISH GRAM MAE. 

3. It has been disputed whether the numerals, two, three, four, etc., 
should be placed before the words first and last, or after them, when 
used to indicate the beginning and end of a series. On this point, 
with small numbers, usage is nearly equally divided ; and, as the 
matter now stands, in some cases the one form seems to be preferable, 
and in some, the other. In this construction, as in some others which 
involve no impropriety, euphony and taste seem to govern, This 
much is certain — neither form can be justly condemned on the ground 
of either authority or propriety. See Appendix XI. 

705. An adjective is placed after its substantive — 

1. Generally when it qualifies a pronoun ; as, " We saw him 

faint and weary." 

2. When other words depend on the adjective; as, "A man 

sick of the palsy " — " A pole ten feet long" 

3. When the quality results from the action expressed a verb ; 

as, " Extravagance makes a man poor " — " Virtue makes a poor 
man happy." 

4. When the adjective is predicated of the substantive; as, 

" God is good " — " We are happy" — "He who is good is happy" 
— " He looks feeble" — " To play is pleasant" — " That he should 
fail is strange." 

706. In many cases the adjective may stand either before or 
after its substantive, and sometimes — especially in poetry, and in 
connection with an infinitive or participle — at a considerable distance 
from it. In all these, the variety is so great that no rules can provide 
for them. Care, however, should be taken to place the adjective where 
its relation to the substantive will be clear and natural, and its mean, 
ing effective. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason for 
the change : — 

These kind of books can liardly be got. — I have not been from 
home this ten days. — I ordered six ton of coal, and these make the 
third that has been delivered. — The garden wall is five rod long ; I 
measured it with a ten-foot pole. — Twenty heads of cattle passed along 
the road. — It is said that a fleet of six sails has just entered the bay. 
—That three pair of gloves cost twelve shilling. — (159, 2) A man who 
is prudent and industrious will, by that means, increase his fortune. — 



S Y X T A X — A ETICLES. 201 

Charles formed expensive habits, and by those means became poor. — 
If you are fond of those sort of things, you may have them.— (680) 
There was a blot on the first or second pages. — The first and second 
verse are better than the third and fourth. 

(687) Come quick and do not hinder us. — Time passes swift, though 
it appears to move slow. — We got home safely before the dark, and 
found our friends sitting comfortably around the fire. — The boat 
glides smooth over the lake. — (685) Magnesia feels smoothly. — Open 
the door widely. — The door is painted greenly. 

(688) Hand me that there pen, for this here one is the worst of all. 
— Them books were sold for a lesser price than they cost. 

(692) " For beast and bird ; 
These to their grassy couch, those to their nests, repair." 
" Night's shadows hence, from thence the morning's shine ; 
That bright, this dark, this earthly, that divine/ ' 
(694) That very subject which we are now discussing is still in- 
volved in mystery. — This vessel, of which you spoke yesterday, sailed 
in the evening. 

(698-700) That merchant is the wealthiest of all his neighbors. — 
China has a greater population than any nation on earth. — That ship 
is larger than any of its class. — There is more gold in California than 
in any part of North America. — The birds of Brazil are more beauti- 
ful than any in South America. — Philadelphia is the most regular of 
any city in Europe. — Israel loved Joseph more than all his children. 
— Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 
* (701, 702) A more worthier man you can not find. — The nightin- 
gale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. — A worser evil yet 
awaits us. — The rumor has not spread so universally as we sup- 
posed. — Draw that line more perpendicular. — This figure is a more 
perfect circle than that is. — He is far from being so perfect as he 
thinks he is. 



The Article and its Noun, 

70 7. RuitB III. — 1. The article a or an is put lef ore 
common nouns in the singular number when used in- 
definitely (185); as, "A man" — "An apple;" tliat is, 
"any man"— "any apple" (186, 187). 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMA E. 

2. The article the is put before common nouns, either 
singlwldr or plural, when used definitely (191) ; 
as, " The sun rises" — " The city of New York." 
[See Etymology of the Article, 183.] 

708, A common noun, in the singular number, without an article 
or limiting word, is usually taken in its widest sense : as, " Man is 
mortal " — " Anger is a short madness." 

709, The is sometimes used before a singular noun, to particu- 
larize a species or class, without specifying any individual 

under it ; as, the oak, the rose, the horse, the raven, meaning not any 
particular oak, rose, horse, or raven, but the class so called, in a gen- 
eral sense. In such cases, whether the noun is used to denote a class 
or an individual, can be determined only by the sense, as in the fol- 
lowing examples : " The oak produces acorns " — " The oak was struck 
by lightning." — " The horse is a noble animal " — " The horse ran 
away/' — " The lion shall eat straw like the ox " — " The lion tore the 
ox in pieces." — " The night is the time for repose " — " The night was 
dark." 

710, Every article belongs to a noun, expressed or understood, 
except as in 714 and 715. 

V-llm When several nouns are connected in the same con- 
struction , the article is commonly expressed with the first, ^and 
understood to the rest ; as, " The men, women, and children, are ex. 
pected." But when emphasis, or a different form of the article is 
required, the article is prefixed ; as, " The men, the women, and the 
children are expected." — " A horse and an ass." 

712. But when several nouns in the same construction are dis- 
junctively connected, the article must be repeated ; as, " The men, 
or the women, or the children, are expected." 

7 IS* The is commonly put before an adjective used as a 
noun; as, " The righteous is more excellent than his neighbor.'' 
Also before adjectives in the superlative degree 9 when compari- 
son is implied (213) ; as, "Gold is the most precious of the metals." 
But when comparison is not implied, the superlative is either with 
out an article, or has a or an preceding it ; as, " A most excellent 
man." 

714:. The is sometimes put intensively before adjectives and 
adverbs in the comparative degree ; as, " The higher the mountain, 



SYNTAX — ARTICLES. 203 

the colder its top " — " The faster he goes, the sooner he stops." Thus 
used, it performs the function of an adverb. 

71o. An adjective placed after its noun as an epithet, com- 
monly has the article the before it ; as, " Alexander the Great "— 
" Charles the Fifth." This may be considered as inverted for " The 
great Alexander ;" " The fifth Charles ;" or, by ellipsis, for " Alex, 
ander, the great [conqueror]," " Charles, the fifth [emperor of the 
name]." 

710. A. or an is sometimes put before the adjectives few, 
hundred, thousand, followed by a plural noun; as, "A few 
men " — " A hundred acres " — " A thousand miles." In such cases the 
adjective and noun may be considered as a compound term, express- 
ing one aggregate, and having the construction of a collective noun 
(790). Or the adjective maybe regarded as a collective noun (204), 
and the noun following governed by of understood ; as, " A few [of] 
men " — " A hundred [of] acres," etc. This is evidently the construc- 
tion of larger numbers ; thus, we never say, " A million dollars," but 
" A million of dollars." 

717 . When two or more adjectives belong to the same noun, 
the article of the noun is put with the first adjective, but not 
with the rest ; as, " A red and white rose," that is, one rose partly red 
and partly white. But, 

718* When two or more adjectives belong each to a different 
object of the same name, the article of the noun is put with each 
adjective ; as, "A red and a white rose"=" A red rose and a white 
rose," that is, two roses, one red and the other white. 

719. The same remarks apply to the demonstrative that as to 
the article (717, 718) ; as, " That great and good man"=0?2^ man. 

720. So also, when two or more epithets follow a noun, if both 
designate the same person, the article precedes the first only. If 
they designate different persons, the article must precede each ; 
thus, " Johnson, the bookseller and stationer," means one man, who 
is both a bookseller and a stationer : but, " Johnson the bookseller, 
and the stationer," means two men, one a bookseller named Johnson, 
and the other a stationer, not named. 

721. When two nouns after a word implying comparison 
refer to the same person or thing, the last must want the article ; as, 
" He is a better soldier than statesman." But when they refer to dif- 
ferent persons, the last must have the article ; as, " He j k s a better sol- 
dier than a statesman [would be]." 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

722. The article a before tlie adjectives few and Ziffle renders 
the meaning positive ; as, " A few men can do that." — " He de- 
serves a little credit." But without the article the meaning is nega- 
tive; as, "Few men can do that." — "He deserves little credit." 

723. In the translation of the Scriptures, and in some other writ- 
ings of that time, the is often used before which ; as, " That worthy- 
name by the which ye are called." — " The which when I had seen." — 
Bunyan. 

724:. The article is generally omitted before proper names, ab- 
stract nouns, and names of virtues, vices, arts, sciences, etc., when not 
restricted, and such other nouns as are of themselves so manifestly 
definite as not to require it ; as, " Christmas is in December" — " Logic 
and mathematics are important studies." — " Truth is mighty." Still 
certain proper names, and names used in a certain way, have the 
article prefixed ; as, " The Alps " — " The Rhine " — " The Azores " — 
" The immortal Washington " — " He was Johnson, of the family of the 
Johnsons in England." 

Position of the Article. 

725. The article is commonly placed before its noun ; as, " A 
man " — " The man" 

726. If the noun is qualified by an adjective before it, the article 
precedes the adjective ; as, " A good man" 

727. But the article folloius the adjectives all, such, many, 
what, both ; and all adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or how ; as, " All 
the men " — " Such a man " — " Many a man " — " What a man " — 
" Both the men " — " Too great a man " — " So great a man " — " As 
great a man " — " How great a man." 

728. When the adjective follows the noun, not as an epithet, the 
article remains before the noun, and the adjective is without it ; as, 
" A man destitute of principle should not be trusted." For an adjec- 
tive as an epithet, see (715) above. 

Note. — The use of the article is so varied, that the best general 
rule is to study what the sense requires, both as to its proper use and 
position. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Change, or omit, or insert the article, where necessary, and give a 
reason for so doing. 

(707, 1, 2) A country around New York is beautiful in a spring. — A 



SYNTAX — ARTICLES. 205 

life of the modern soldier is ill represented by heroic fiction. — Earth 
existed first in the state of chaos. — An age of chivalry is gone. — A crowd 
at the door was so great that we could not enter. — The large number 
of men was present. 

(708) The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are four elements 
of the philosophers. — Reason was given to a man to control his pas- 
sions. — A man was made to mourn. — The gold is corrupting. — The 
silver is a precious metal. 

(709) Horse is a noble animal. — A lion is generous, a cat is treach- 
erous, a dog is faithful. — A horse-leech cries, " Give, give," and a grave 
is never satisfied. — The war has means of destruction more dreadful 
than cannon or sword. 

(712) Neither the man nor boy was to blame. — A man may be a me. 
chanic, or farmer, or lawyer, and be useful and respected ; but idler 
or spendthrift can never be either. 

(713) We should ever pay attention to graceful or becoming. — 
The memory of just is blessed ; but the name of wicked shall rot. 
— Best men are often those who say least. — James is a man of the most 
brilliant talents. — Keep good and throw bad away. 

(715) Herod Great was distinguished for his cruelty ; Pliny younger 
for gentleness and benignity. — Peter Hermit proposed his plan for 
recovering Jerusalem to Pope Martin II. — The father of William Cow- 
per, poet, was chaplain to George II. 

(717) A red and a white flag was the only one displayed from the 
tower. — A beautiful stream flows between the old and new mansion. — 
A hot and cold spring were found in the same neighborhood. — The 
The young and old man seem to be on good terms. — The first and 
second book are difficult. — Thomson the watchmaker and the jeweler 
made one of the party. 

(721) A man maybe a better soldier than a logician. — There is 
much truth in the saying that fire is a better servant than a master. 
— He is not so good a poet as an historian. 

(722) It is always necessary to pay little attention to business. — A 
little respect should be paid to those who deserve none. — Let the 
damsel abide with us few days. — Are not my days a few ? — A few 
men of his age enjoy so good health. 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMA E. 

The Pronoun and its Antecedent. 

729. Etjle IV. — Personal Pronouns agree ivith 
the words for which they stand, in gender, number, 
and person / as, " All that a man hath will he give for 
his life " — " A tree is known by its fruit." 

Special Mules. 

730. Rule 1.— When a pronoun refers to two or more words 
taken together, it becomes plural ; and if they are of different 
persons, prefers the first person to the second, and the second to 
the third ; as, " He and she did their duty " — " John and you, and I 
will do our duty." 

Rule 2. — When a pronoun refers to two or more words in the 
singular, taken separately , or to one of them exclusively, it 
must be singular / as, " A clock or a watch moves merely as it is 
moved." 

Rule 3. — But if either of the words referred to is plural, the 
pronoun must be plural also ; as, "Neither he nor they trouble 
themselves" Distributives are always of the third person singular 
(301). 

7 SI. Nouns are taken together when connected by and-^ sepa- 
rately when connected by or or nor, as above ; also after each, 
every, no, though connected by and; as, " Each book and each pax)er 
is in its place." 

732. When singular nouns of different genders are taken sepa- 
rately, they can not be represented by a pronoun, for want of a sin- 
gular pronoun, common gender, except by a clumsy repetition ; thus, 
" If any man or woman shall violate his or her pledge, he or she shall 
pay a fine." The use of the plural pronoun in such cases, though 
sometimes used, is improper ; as, " If any man or woman shall violate 
their pledge," etc. 

733. Pronouns referring to singular nouns, or other words of the 
common gender (126), taken in a general sense, are commonly mascu> 
line ; as, " A parent should love his child." " Every person has his 
faults." — " No one should commend himself" The want of a singular 
personal pronoun, common gender, is felt also in this construction. 

734:. A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, 
expressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter singular ; 



SYNTAX — PRONOUNS. 207 

but when the noun expresses many as individuals, the pronoun 
should be plural; as, " The army proceeded on its march." — " The 
court were divided in their opinion." 

735. A singular noun after the phrase, "many a," may 
take a pronoun in the plural, but never in the same clause ; as — 

" In Hawick twinkled many a light, — 
Behind him soon they set in night." — W. Scott 

736. The personal pronoun is sometimes used at the be- 
ginning of a sentence, instead of the word person or persons ; 
as, " He who "— " They who "—also, " Those who " for " The per- 
sons who." 

73 7. Pronouns representing nouns personified (129), take the 
gender of the noun as a person ; as, " Night, sable goddess, from her 
ebon throne." But pronouns representing nouns taken metaphori- 
cally (1046, 3) agree with them in their literal sense ; as, " Pitt was the 
pillar which in its strength upheld the state." 

738, It is improper in the progress of a sentence to denote the 
same person by pronouns of different numbers ; as, " I labored 
long to make thee happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude." 
It should be either " to make you happy," or " thou rewardest " (245). 

739, In the use of pronouns, when it would be uncertain to which 
of two or more antecedent words (229) a pronoun refers, the ambiguity 
may be avoided by repeating the noun, instead of using the pronoun, 
or by changing the form of the sentence ; thus, " When we see the 
beautiful variety of color in the rainbow, we are led to consider its 
cause " — better " the cause of that variety." 

Position of Pronouns. 

74:0. The first and second personal pronouns commonly stand 
instead of nouns implied, but not expressed. Possessive pro- 
nouns, and the pronouns of the third person, are commonly placed 
after their antecedents (229) ; but sometimes this order, especially in 
poetry, is reversed. 

741. When words of different pwsons come together, the 
usual order of arrangement, in English, is to place the second person 
before the third, and the first person last ; as, " You and he, and Jare 
sent for." — " This matter concerns you, or him, or me" 

In connection with these rules and observations, see also the obser- 
vations on gender (128-134), on number (155-160), and on personal 
pronouns (240-252). 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In each sentence state the antecedent words to which the pronouns 
refer ; change the pronouns which are wrong, and give a reason for 
the change : — 

(729) A person's success in life depends on their exertions ; if they 
shall aim at nothing, they shall certainly achieve nothing. — Extremes 
are not in its nature favorable to happiness. — A man's recollections 
of the past regulate their anticipations of the future. — Let every boy 
answer for themselves. — Each of us had more than we wanted. — 
Every one of you should attend to your own business (801.) 

(730, 1) Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. 
— Both cold and heat have its extremes. — You and your friend should 
take care of themselves. — You and I must be diligent in your studies. 

(730, 2) John or James will favor us with their company. — One or 
other must relinquish their claim. — Neither wealth nor honor confers 
happiness on their votaries. — (731) Each day and each hour brings 
their changes. — No thought, no word, no action, however secret, can 
escape in the judgment, whether they be good or evil. 

(732) Let every man and every woman strive to do their best. — If 
any boy or girl shall neglect her duty, they shall forfeit their place. 

(733) One should not think too highly of themselves. — A teacher 
should always consult the interest of her pupils. — A parent's care for 
her children is not always requited. 

(734) The assembly held their meetings in the evening. — The 
court, in their wisdom, decided otherwise. — The regiment was greatly 
reduced in their number. — Society is not always answerable for the 
conduct of their members. — The committee were divided in its opin- 
ions. — The public are informed that its interests are secured. 

(737) The earth is my mother ; I will recline on its bosom. — That 
Freedom, in its fearless flight may here announce its glorious reign. 
— Policy keeps coining truth in its mints, — such truth as it can tole- 
rate, and every die, except its own, it breaks and casts away. 

(738) Though you are great, yet consider thou art a man. — Care for 
thyself, if you would have others care for you. 

(739) One man may do a kindness to another, though he is his 
enemy. — John gave his enemy a present which he highly valued. 

(741) I and my father were invited. — An invitation was sent to 
me and George. — You and I and James were to be ©f the party ; but 
neither I nor you nor he can go. 



SYNTAX — RELATIVES. 209 



The Relative and its Antecedent. 

742. Ktjle V. — The Relative agrees with its ante" 
cedent in number and person / as, " Thou who 
speakest." — " The book which was lost." 
[See Etymology, 255, etc.] 

743. The number of tlie relative can be determined only from 
the number of the antecedent. 

744. Who is applied to persons, or things personified (129) ; as, 
" The man who." — " The/<9# who had never seen a lion." 

745. Which is applied to things and inferior animals — some- 
times to children — to collective nouns in the singular, implying unity 
— and also to persons, in asking questions. 

74 6. In the translation of the Bible, which is applied to per- 
sons / as, " Our Father which art in heaven." 

747* Which applies to a noun denoting a person, when the 
character 9 or the man merely as a word, is referred to ; as, " He is 
a good writer, which is all he professes to be." — " That was the work 
of Herod, which is but another name for cruelty." 

748. That, as a relative, is used instead of who or which — 

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree — after the words 

very, same, and all — often after no, some, and any — and gene- 
rally in restrictive clauses (268). 

2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, 

" The man and the horse that we saw." 

3. After the interrogative tvho, and often after the personal 

pronouns ; as, "Who that knew him could think so ?" — "I that 
speak in righteousness." 
4 Generally when the propriety of who or which is doubtful ; as, 
" The little child that was placed in the midst." 

749. The relatives who or which and that should not be 
mivced in a series of relative clauses having the same antecedent. 
Thus, it is improper to say, " The man that met us and whom we saw." 
It should be, " who met us," or " that we saw." 

750. The relative refers sometimes to the idea expressed by an 
adjective, sometimes to the infinitive. But this construction is 
rare. See examples (256). 



210 ENGLISH GEAIMAR. 

751. The relative in the objective case is often omitted; as, 
" Here is the book I promised you." The relative in the nominative 
case is hardly ever omitted except in poetry ; as — 

" In this, 'tis God — directs, in that, 'tis man." 

752. The antecedent is omitted before what (266), and gene- 
rally before the compound relatives (273). It is sometimes under- 
stood, especially in poetry ; as — 

" [He] who lives to nature, rarely can be poor." 

7 53. What should not be used for the conjunction that. 
Thus, " I can not believe but what it is so," should be, " but that it is 
so." Also, the demonstrative that should not be used for the relative 
what ; as, " We speak that we do know," better, " what we do know." 

Position of the Melative. 

754. The relative is generally placed after its antecedent. 

755. To prevent ambiguity, the relative should be placed as near 
its antecedent as possible, and so that there can be no uncertainty 
as to the word to which it refers. 

756» In most instances, the sense will be a sufficient guide in this 
matter : thus, " They removed their wives and children in wagons 
covered with the skins of animals, which formed their simple habita- 
tions." Here the sense only can determine to which of the three 
words, wagons, skins, or animals, the relative which refers. . But — 

757* When the antecedent can not be determined by the sense, it 
should be determined by the position of the relative, which, as a 
general rule, should belong to the nearest antecedent. Thus — 

" We walked from the house to the bam ) . n 

" We walked to the barn from the house C 

Here the relative which, as determined by its position, refers, in the 
first sentence, to barn, and in the second, to house. 

758. So also, when the antecedents denote the same object, the 
one being in the subject and the other in the predicate, the relative 
takes the person of the one next it ; as, "I am the man who com- 
mands you " — not " command you." If the relative refer to I, the 
words should be arranged, "I who command you am the man." 
Hence — 

759. A relative clause which modifies the subject should not 
be placed in the predicate ; thus, " He should not keep a horse that 



SYNTAX — RELATIVES. 211 

can not ride," should be, " He that can not ride should not keep a 
horse." 

EXEBCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, which are the relatives ? What is the 
antecedent to which each refers ? Correct those which are wrong, 
and give the rule, or the reason for the change. 

(744) Those which seek wisdom will certainly find her. — This is 
the friend which I love. — (745) That is the vice whom I hate. — The 
tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity. — The court who 
gives currency to such manners should be exemplary. — The nations 
who have the best rulers are happy. — Your friend is one of the com- 
mittee who was appointed yesterday. — The family with whom I lived 
has left the city. — (747) His father set him up as a merchant, who 
was what he*desired to be. 

(748) It is the best situation which can be got. — That man was the 
first who entered. — This is the same horse which we saw yesterday. — 
Solomon was the wisest king whom the world ever saw. — The lady 
and the lapdog, which we saw at the window, have disappeared. 

(749) Thou who hast preserved us, and that wilt still preserve 
us ! — The man whom we met to-day, and that was at our house yes- 
terday, is the same. 

(752) I have sent every thing what you ordered. — All whosoever 
came were made welcome. — He whoever steals my purse steals trash. 
— (753) I can not believe but what you have been sick. — It is not im- 
possible but what you are mistaken. 

(755) The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, who had 
never before committed so unjust an action. 

(759) He needs no spectacles that can not see, nor boots that can 
not walk. — Those must not expect the sympathy of the diligent who 
spend their time in idleness. 



The Subject Nominative. 

760. Rule VI. — The subject of a finite vert is put 
in the nominative ; as, "J am." — " Thou art." — "He is." 
— « They are."—" Time flies."—" The letter is written." 

761, A finite verb is a verb in the indicative, potential, sub- 
junctive, or imperative mood. It is called finite, because in these 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

parts it is limited by person and number. In the infinitive and 
participles, it is not so limited. 

702. The subject of a finite verb (315) may be a noun, a pronoun, 
an infinitive mood (394), a participle used as a noun (462), or a clause 
of a sentence (637). All these, when the subject of the verb, are re- 
garded as substantives in the nominative (109 and 867). 

703. Every nominative, not absolute (769), or in apposition 
(668), or in the predicate (796), is the subject of a verb, expressed 
or understood. 

704:. The following sentence is wrong, because the nominative 
who has no verb of which it is the subject, viz. : " These evils 
were caused by Cataline, who, if he had been punished, the republic 
would not have been exposed to so great dangers." Better — " If 
Cataline, by ichom these evils were caused, had been punished," etc. 
Hence— 

705. It is impropor to use both a noun and its pronoun as 
the subject of the same verb ; thus, " The king he is just," should 
be, " The king is just." Except when the compound pronouns are 
added to the subject for the sake of emphasis (249); as, "The king 
himself has come." 

700. 1. The nominative, especially in answer to a question, and 
after than or as, often has the verb understood ; as, " Who said so ?" 
— " He [said so]."—" James is taller than I [am] ; but not so tall as 
you [are] ; but — 

2. Than is followed by the objective case of the relative^ 
as, " A soldier than whom you never saw a braver." 

Note. — In comparative clauses, the case after than and as 
is determined by its relation in the comparison ; as, 
He loved John better than [he loved] me. 
He loved John better than i" [loved him]. 

Position of the Subject. 

707 • The subject is commonly placed before the verb. 
But in imperative or interrogative sentences, and in sentences inserted 
for the sake of emphasis or euphony, the subject is often placed 
after the verb; as, "Gro thou." — "Did he go?" — "May you be 
happy!"— "Were I he."— " Neither did they."— " Said Z"—" There 
was a man" etc. 

Under this rule there is liability to error only in the use of pro- 
nouns, and in leaving a nominative without its verb. 



SYNTAX — THE NOMINATIVE. 213 

EXEECISES TO BE COEEECTED. 

Which nouns or pronouns in the following sentences are the sub- 
ject of a verb ? If not in the proper case, change them, and give the 
rule or reason for the changes. 

(760) Him and me are of the same age. — Suppose you and me go. — 
Them are excellent. — Whom do you think has arrived ? — Them that 
seek wisdom will find it. — You and us enjoy many privileges. 

(766) John is older than me. — You are as tall as her. — Who has a 
knife ? Me. — Who came in ? Her and him. — You can write as well 
as me. — That is the boy whom we think deserves the prize. 

(765) Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, yet men are 
so constituted as to respect genuine merit. 



The Nominative Absolute or Independent. 

768. Eule VII. — A substantive whose case depends 
on no other word is put in the nominative absolute. 

Note. — The nominative under this rule is usually called the nomi- 
native absolute or independent ; because, in English, though always 
in the form of the nominative, yet it has no grammatical dependence 
on any word in the sentence. This occurs in all examples under the 
following 

Special I&ules. 

769. Rule 1. — A substantive with a participle, whose ease 
depends on no other toord, is put in the nominative ; as, " He being 
gone, only two remain." 

770. In this construction, the substantive is sometimes un- 
derstood ; as, " His conduct, viewing it even favorably, can not be 
commended;" that is, "we [a person] viewing it," etc. 

771. Sometimes being and having been are omitted ; as, 
" Her wheel {being] at rest " — " He destroyed or won" etc., that is, 
" He having been destroyed or won" etc. — " This said," that is, " This 
being said." 

772. In this construction, the substantive with the participle is 
used to express an assumed fact in an abbreviated form, and is 



214 ENGLISH GEAMIAE. 

equivalent to a dependent clause, connected by when, while, if, since, 
because, etc. (644); as, "He having gone, his brother returned ;"= 
" Since or because he went, his brother returned." 

773. Rule 2. — A substantive denoting a person or thing ad- 
dressed without a verb or governing word, is put in the nominative ; 
as, " I remain, dear sir, yours truly " — " Plato, thou reasonest well." 

77^. Rule 3. — A substantive, unconnected, in mere exclama^ 
tion, is put in the nominative ; as, " 0, the times ! O, the manners !" 

775. Rule 4. — A substantive, used by pleonasm (1044, 2) 
before an affirmation, is put in the nominative ; as, " The boy, oh ! 
where was he V — " Your fathers, where are they V — " The prophets, 
do they live for ever?" 

Under this rule, a mistake can be made only in the case of pro- 
nouns. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Point out the noun or pronoun whose case depends on no other word 
— put it in the case required by the rule, and give the special rule re- 
quiring it. 

Me being absent, the business was neglected. — He made as wise 
proverbs as anybody, him only excepted. — All enjoyed themselves 
very much, us excepted. — Whom being dead, we shall come. 

Whose gray top 
Shall tremble, him descending. 
The bleating sheep with my complaints agree ; 
Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee. 
Her quick relapsing to her former state. 
Then all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 



The Verb and its Subject. 

776. Eule VIII. — A verb agrees with its subject 
in number and person ; as, " I read" " Thou readest" " He 
reads" " We read" etc. 

[Respecting the subject in the nominative, see (493). This rule, and 
the special rules under it, apply to an infinitive moodor clause of a 



SYNTAX — THE VERB. 215 

sentence, when the subject of a verb (762), as well as to nouns and 
pronouns.] 

Remark. — Impersonal verbs (520) are always in the third 
person singular ; as, " It hails" " it rains" etc. Such expressions as 
" it appears" " it seems" " it happens," and the like, sometimes called 
impersonal verbs, are really personal, having for their subject an in- 
finitive mood or substantive phrase following, to which " it " preced- 
ing refers ; as, " It appears that the river is rising." — " It seems to be 
so " (see 246, 4). So also, in the expressions as follows, as concerns, as 
appears, and the like, the verb is not impersonal ; but whether sin- 
gular or plural, refers to a subject understood ; as, " The case was as 
follows," i. e., as it here follows. — " The conditions were as follow" i. e., 
were as they here follow, or as those which follow. 

Special Mules. 

777* Rule 1. — A singular noun used in a plural sense has 
a verb in the plural ; as, " Ten sail are in sight " (160). 

778. Rule 2. — Two or more substantives, singular, taken 
together, have a verb in the plural ; as, " James and John are 
here." 

779* Substantives taken together are connected by and, ex- 
pressed or understood (955), as in the example above. 

780. A singular nominative and an objective, connected by with, 
sometimes have a plural verb ; as, " The ship with the crew were 
lost." , This construction is incorrect, and should not be imitated. A 
mere adjunct of a substantive does not change its number or 
construction. Either, then, the verb should be singular, " The ship 
with the crew was lost," or, if the second substantive is considered as 
belonging to the subject, it should be connected by and; as, " The 
ship and the crew were lost." But — 

781. When substantives connected by and denote one person 
or thing, the verb is singular ; as, " Why is dust and ashes proud?" 
— " The saint, the father, and the husband, prays."— Burns. 

782. Singular nouns, preceded by each, every, no 9 though 
connected by and, have 4heverb in the singular; as, "Each 
book and each paper teas arranged."—" Every paper and every book 
was arranged."-— " No book smd no paper was arranged." 

783. When a verb, having several subjects connected by and, is 



216 ENGLISH GEAMIAE, 

placed after the first, it agrees with that, and is understood to 

the rest ; as, 

" Forth in the pleasing spring 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love" — Thomson, 
784. When the substantives connected are of different persons, 
the verb in the plural prefers the first to the second, and the 
second to the third. This can be perceived only in the pronoun 
(730,1). 

785* Rule 3. — Two or more substantives, singular, taken 
separately, or one to the exclusion of the rest, have a verb in the 
singular ; as, 

" James or John attends" — " Neither James nor John attends." — 
" John, and not [but not] James, attends." — " John, as well as James, 
attends." — " Not John, but James, attends." 

786. Nouns taken separately are connected by or, nor, as 
well as, and also, etc. A noun taken so as to exclude others is 
connected with them by such phrasefe as and not, but not, not, 
etc. In such the verb agrees with the subject affirmed of, and is 
understood with the others. 

Note. — Singular nouns connected by nor sometimes have a 
plural verb. In that case the verb denies equally of all, and nor 
is equivalent to and, connecting the nouns, and a negative which is 
transferred to, and modifies the verb ; as, " Neither Moses, nor Minos, 
nor Solon, nor Lycurgus, were eloquent men" — Acton—" Moses, and 
Minos, and Solon, and Lycurgus, were not eloquent men," or, " were 
none of them eloquent." This construction has not been generally 
noticed, but it often occurs in the best writers. 

787 • But when two or more substantives, taken separately, are of 
different ntimbers, the verb agrees with the one next it, and 
the plural subject is usually placed next the verb ; as, "Neither the 
captain nor the sailors were saved ; rarely, " Neither the sailors nor 
the captain was saved." 

788. Rule 4. — When substantives, taken separately, are of dif- 
ferent persons, the verb agrees with the one next it; as, " James 
or I am in the wrong." — " Either you or he is mistaken." — " I or thou 
art to blame." 

789. Though sentences are often formed according to this rule, 
they are generally harsh and inelegent. — It is generally better to put 
the verb with the first substantive, and repeat it with the second ; or 



SYNTAX — THE VERB. 217 

to express the same idea by arranging the sentence differently ; as, 
" James is in the wrong, or I am" or, " One of us is in the wrong." 
"Either you are mistaken or he is." — " I am to blame, or thou art" 
This remark is sometimes applicable, also, when the substantives are 
of the same person, but different in number, and requiring each a 
different form of the verb ; as, " Either the captain or the sailors were 
to blame ;" otherwise, " Either the captain was to blame, or the sailors 
were" 

790. Rule 5. — 1. A collective noun, expressing many as one 
tvhole, lias a verb in the singular / as, " The company was large." 

791. 2. But when a collective noun expresses many as individ- 
uals, the verb must be plural; as, "My people do not consider." 

792. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a collective 
noun expresses unity or plurality. It is now generally considered 
best to use the plural, where the singular is not manifestly required. 

793. A subject after " many a " has a verb in the singular; as, 
" Full many a flower is born," etc. (735). 

794:. Two or more verbs connected in the same construction, as a 
compound predicate (627) have the same subject ; as, "James 
reads and writes." " James neither reads nor writes." 

795. But when verbs are not connected in the same construc- 
tion, each verb should have its own subject. The following sen- 
tence is wrong in this respect : " The whole is produced as an illu- 
sion of the first class, and hopes it will be found worthy of patron- 
age ;" it should be, either " He produces the whole as an illusion," 
etc., " and hopes" etc. ; " The whole is produced," etc., " and he 
hopes, etc., or, " and it is hoped," etc. 

For the position of the verb and its subject, see (767), and also 
(741). 

EXEECISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

What is the verb in each of^the following sentences ? What is its 
subject ? See if they agree. If they do, give the rule and show 
how it applies. If they do not, change the verb so as to agree with 
its subject, and give the rule. Thus, loves should be love, to agree 
with I, in the first person, singular. Bule — "A verb agrees/' 
etc. (776). 

(776) I loves reading. — A soft answer turn away wrath — We is but 
of yesterday, and knows nothing. — The days of man is as grass.— 



218 ENGLISH G B A M M A $.. 

Tliou sees how little lias been done. — He dare not act otherwise. — 
Fifty pounds of wheat produces forty pounds of flour.— A variety 
of pleasing objects charm the eye.— So much of ability and merit 
are seldom found.-— A judicious arrangement of studies facilitate 
improvement.— Was you there ?— I, who are first, has the best 
claim.— The derivation of these words are uncertain.— To be igno- 
rant of such things are now inexcusable. — (482). — She needs not 
trouble herself. 

(777) Forty head of cattle was sold in one hour. — The horse was 
sent forward to engage the enemy. — The foot, in the meantime, was 
preparing for an attack.— Fifty sail was seen approaching the coast. 
Two dozen is as many as you can take. — -One pair was spoiled ; five 
pair was in good condition. 

(778) Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. — Life 
and death is in the power of the tongue.— Anger and impatience is 
always unreasonable. — Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing 
and cursing. — To profess regard, and to act differently, marks a base 
mind. — To be good and to seem good is different things. 

(781) That able scholar and critic have died.— Your friend and pa- 
tron who were here yesterday have called again to-day. 

(782) Every leaf, and every twig, and every drop of water, teem with 
life.— Every man and every woman were searched. — No wife, no 
mother, no child, soothe his cares. — No oppressor, no tyrant, triumph 
there. 

(785) Either the boy or the girl were present. — Neither precept nor 
discipline are so forcible as example.— Our happiness or misery de- 
pend much upon our own conduct. — A man's being rich, or his being 
poor, do not affect his character for integrity. — To do good or to get 
good are equally neglected by the foolish. 

(786) His time, as well as his money and health, were lost in tlio 
undertaking. — He, and not we, are to blame.— James, and also his 
brother, have embarked for the gold region. 

(787) Neither the scholars nor the teacher was present. — Whether 
the subjects or the king is responsible, makes no difference. 

(788) Either he or I are willing to go. — Neither thou nor he art of 
age. — You or your brother are blamed. — Neither James nor I has had 
a letter this week. 

(790) Stephen's party were entirely broken up. — The meeting were 
large and respectable. — The people often rejoices in that which will 



SYNTAX — PEEDICATE NOMIKATIVE. 219 

prove their ruin. — The British Parliament are composed of lords and 
commons. — The noble army of martyrs praiseth thee, O God ! — A 
great number of women were present. — The public is respectfully 
informed. — The audience was much pleased. — The council was not 
unanimous. — Congress have adjourned. 

While still the busy world is treading o'er 
The paths they trod five thousand years before. 

(798) Many a one have tried to be rich, but in vain. — Many a broken 
ship have come to land. 

(795) The letter from which the extract was taken, and came by 
mail, is lost. — It was proposed by the president to fit out an expedi- 
tion, and has accomplished it. — Our friend brought two loads to mar- 
ket, and were sold at a good price. 



The Predicate Substantive. 

796. Eule IX. — The predicate substantive? after 

an attributive verb, is put in the same case as the subject 
before it (797) ; as, 

" It is I" — " He shall be called John."—" She walks a queen." — " I 
took it to be him." — " He seems to be a scholar" — " The opinion is, 
that he will live." Hence — 

Note. — As the subject of a verb can be only in the nominative 
(760), or objective (872), the predicate substantive can be only in the 
nominative or objective, 

797 • Any verb may be the copula [attributive verb] between the 
subject and the predicate substantive, except a transitive verb in the 
active voice. But those most commonly used in this way are the 
verbs to be, to become, to seem, to appear ; intransitive verbs 
of motion, position, etc., and passive verbs, denoting to call, name, 
style, appoint, choose, make, esteem, reckon, etc ' 

70 8 ', The predicate substantive after a verb may be any thing that 
can be the subject of a verb (762) 

799, The infinitive without a definite subject, or the parti- 
ciple of an attributive verb (604) in a substantive clause, has a 
predicate substantive after it in the nominative ; as, 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" To be a foreigner is a disadvantage." 

" He was not known to be a foreigner." 

" His being a foreigner was not known." 

" He was suspected of being a foreigner." 

" We did not know his being [or, of his being] a foreigner." 

In a]l these examples, the word foreigner is the predicate nomina- 
tive after to be, or being, because these phrases being only abridged 
dependent clauses (649), the predicate noun remains in the same case 
after the clause is abridged as it was before. Thus, " He was not 
known to be a foreigner," =" It was not known that he was a for- 
eigner." As, then, in the latter form, foreigner is in the nominative 
under the rule, it remains the same in the abridged form, and so of 
the other examples. But when we say, *' For him to be a foreigner" 
or, " We did not know him to be a foreigner " (395), him, in both 
examples, is the subject of to be, and foreigner is in the objective 
according to the rule. 

Position. 

800. The usual position of the predicate substantive is after 
the verb, as that of the subject is before it, and this is always the 
order of construction. But in both the direct and the indirect ques- 
tion, and in inverted sentences, its place is often different ; thus, 
" Who is he f" — " We know not who he is." — " Is he a student ?"— 
" He is the same that he was." — " The dog it was that died."—" A 
man he was to all the country dear."—" Feet was Jto the lame." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In each of the following sentences, which is the attributive verb ? — 
what is its subject ? — what the predicate substantive ? Correct where 
it is wrong, and give the reason for the correction. Thus, me is the 
predicate substantive, and should be I, because the subject it is in the 
nominative. Eule — " The predicate/' etc. 

(796) It is me. — It was me who wrote the letter, and him who car- 
ried it to the post-office. — I am sure it could not have been her. — You 
would probably do the same thing if you were him. — I understood it 
to be he.— It may have been him, but there is no proof of it.— I 
little thought it had been him. 

Whom do you think he is?— Who do you think him to be? — 
Whom do men say that I am ?— He is the man whom you said it was. 



SYNTAX — OBJECT AFTER VERBS. 221 

— Let liim be whom lie may. — Is it not him whom you thought it 
was ? — Thomas knew not whom it was that called, though quite cer- 
tain it was not her who we saw yesterday. 



The Object after Transitive Verbs. 

801. Eule X.— -A substantive? being the object of 
a transitive verb in the active voice, is put in the 
objective case; as, "We love him" — "He loves us" — 
" Whom did they send ?" 

802 » The infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, or 
part of a sentence, may be the object of a transitive verb, as 
well as a noun or pronoun ; as, " Boys love to play." — " I know toko 
is there."—'" I wish that they were wise." — " You see how few have re- 
turned" 

Special Mules. 

803m Rule 1. — An intransitive verb does not govern an 
objective case (320, 1). Thus — 

" Eepenting him of his design," should be, " Repenting of his de- 
sign." Still, a few anomalies of this kind are to be found ; as, " They 
laughed him to scorn." — " The manliness to look the subject in the 
face." — " Talked the night away." 

804m Rule 2. — Intransitive verbs in a transitive sense 
(375) govern the objective case (321, 1, 2) ; as, " He runs a race." — 
" They live a holy life." 

80S, To this usage may be referred such expressions in poetry as 
the following : " The brooks ran nectar." — " The trees wept gums and 
balms." — " Her lips blush deeper sweets" etc. 

806m To this rule also belongs the objective after causative s 
(375, 3) ; as " He runs a stage." — " John walks his horse." — " He works 
him hard," etc. Such expressions, however, as " Grows com" are 
inelegant, and should be avoided. 

807* Rule 3. — Intransitive verbs do not admit a pas- 
sive voice, except when used transitively (375). Thus — 

" I am purposed " — " I am perished/' should be, " I have purposed" 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

— " I am perishing." But we can say, " My race is run," because run 
is used transitively. Such expressions as, " I am resolved " — " He is 
deceased" — "He is retired from business." — "We are determined to 
go on," etc., though common, are incorrect. It is better to say, " I 
have resolved " — " He has retired," etc. 

808. A transitive verb in the active voice, without an object, either 
has an object understood, or is used intransitively (323). 

809. Exile 4 — A transitive verb does not admit a pre- 
position after it ; thus, " I must premise with a few observations." 
— " I will not allow of it." Omit with and of 

810. Rule 5. — Verbs signifying to name, choose, appoint 9 
constitute, and the like, generally govern two objectives, viz., 
the direct, denoting the person or thing acted upon, and the indi- 
rect 9 denoting the result of the act expressed ; as, " They named him 
John." — " The people elected him president." — " They made it a 
book." 

811. In such sentences, when the verb is in the passive voice, 
the direct object of the active form is made the subject of the 
passive, and the indirect remains as the predicate nominative 
after the verb, according to Rule IX. Thus, " He was named John." 
— " He was elected president." — "It was made a book" 

812. Besides the direct or immediate object in the objective case, 
some verbs have a remote object between the immediate and the 
verb, governed by a preposition understood ; as, " John gave me a 
booh." But when the remote object comes last, the preposition must 
be expressed ; as, " John, gave a book to me." The verbs thus used 
are such as signify to ash, teach, offer, promise, give, pay, 
tell, allow, deny, and some others. 

813. These verbs properly take the immediate object of the 
active voice as the subject in the passive, and the remote 
object remains in the objective after the passive, governed by a 
preposition expressed or understood ; as, " A book was promised me, 
or to me " (811). 

814. In loose composition, however, the remote object is some- 
times made the subject, and the immediate object remains in the ob- 
jective case after the passive voice; as, "J was promised a, book." 
The verbs ask and teach frequently have this double construction in 
the passive, but in general the regular construction is better. 

Similar to this are certain expressions sufficiently correct in the ac- 



SYNTAX — OBJECT AFTEB VEEBS. 223 

tive form, but which are anomalous, and can not be analyzed in 
the form usually but incorrectly given to them in the passive. 

Thus, Active — " They took possession of the farm." Passive (incor- 
rectly) " The farm was taken possession of by them " — (correctly) 
" Possession of the farm was taken by them." This anomaly arises 
from inadvertently making the object of the preposition {farm), in- 
stead of the object of the verb in the active voice (possession), the 
subject of the verb in the passive. Such anomalies are the following : 
" The circumstance was made use of." — " The ship was lost sight of," 
— " The occasion was taken advantage of." Either the regular pas-, 
sive form of expression should be used, or, if that be awkward, a dif- 
ferent form of expression should be chosen. 

Position. 

815* As the nominative and the objective case of nouns are 
alike in form, the arrangement of the sentence should clearly 
distinguish the one case from the other. The nominative gene- 
rally precedes the verb, and the objective follows it. Thus, 
" Brutus killed Csesar." If one (or both) of these should be a pro- 
noun, the order may be varied without obscuring the sense, and some- 
times the objective is rendered more emphatic by being placed first; 
as, " Him he slew." 

816. When the objective is a relative or an interrogative 
pronoun, it precedes both the verb and its subject ; as, " The man 
whom we saw is dead." — " Whom did you send ?" 

817. The objective should not, if possible, be separated from its 
verb by intervening clauses. Thus, "We could not discover, for 
want of proper tests, the quality of the metal." Better, "We could 
not, for want of proper tests, discover the quality of the metal." 

EXEECISES TO BE COEEECTED. 

In the following sentences, correct the errors according to the rule, 
and give a reason for the change. Parse the sentences corrected. 
Thus, /should be me, because it is the object of loves. Rule X. — " A 
substantive being the object," etc. 

(801) He loves I. — He and they we know, but who art thou ? — She 
that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. — Ye only have I known. 
— They that honor me I will honor. — Who do you think I saw yes- 
terday ? — Who, having not seen, we love. — Who,should I meet the 



224 ENGLISH GEAMIAE, ~ 

other day but my old friend ? — Who dost thou take to be such a 
coward ? 

(803) You will have reason enough to repent you of your foolish 
conduct. — They did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject. — 
Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea. 

(807) Several persons were entered into a conspiracy.— Fifty men 
are deserted from the army. — I am purposed that I will not sin. — He 
has almost perished with cold.— -I am resolved to go. 

(809) No country will allow of such a practice.— -False accusation 
can not diminish from his real merit. — His servants ye are, to whom 
ye obey. — He ingratiates with some by traducing others. — They shall 
not want for encouragement. 

Change the following into the regular form, and give a reason for 
the change : — 

(813) I was promised a pension.— He was offered a pardon. — She 
would not accept the situation, though she was offered it. — I was 
paid a dollar for my services. — I was given a book of great value. 

(817) Becket could not better discover, than by attacking so pow- 
erful an interest, his resolution to maintain his right.— The troops 
pursued, without waiting to rest, the enemy to their gates. 



The Objective after Prepositions. 

813. Kxjle XL — A substantive, leing the object of 
a preposition, is put in the objective case ; as, " To 
whom much is given, of him much shall be required." 

819. The object of a preposition is sometimes an infinitive 
mood — a participle used as a noun — part of a sentence — a phrase, or 
dependent clause, as well as a noun or pronoun ; as, " He is about to 
depart." — " After we came." — " On receiving his diploma." — " Much 
depends on who are Ms advisers." 

820* Asa general rule, it is considered inelegant to connect 
either an active-transitive verb and a preposition, or two prepositions 
with the same object. Thus, " I wrote to and warned him." Bet- 
ter, " I wrote to him, and warned him." So, " Of him, and through 
him, and to him, are all things." Not of, and through, and to 
him" etc. 



SYNTAX — OBJECT AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 225 

82 1. This general rule is so little regarded, even by the best 
writers, that it is a matter of doubt whether it should any longer retain 
a place longer in our grammars. In many instances, at least, the 
form of speech condemned by the rule is clearly better in respect of 
perspicuity, brevity, and strength, than that which it recommends, 
and in such cases it should be adopted. In some cases, again, as in 
the above example, the full form is better than the elliptical. In this 
matter, every one must be guided by his taste and judgment, avoid- 
ing equally obscurity and harshness. 

822. When the prepositions t o, at, in, stand before names of 
places, the following usage should be carefully observed, viz. : — 

1. To — is used after a verb of motion toward; as, "He went 

to Spain." But it is omitted before home ; as, " Go home." 

2. At — is used before names of houses, villages, towns, 

and foreign cities ; as, " He resides at the Mansion 
House." — "At Saratoga Springs." — " At Lisbon." 

3. In — is used before names of countries and large cities / as, 

" He lives in England "--*■" in London " — " in New York." 
But at is used before the names of places and large cities 
after the verbs touch, arrive, land, and frequently 
after the verb to be ; as, " We touched at Liverpool, and, 
after a short passage, landed at New Orleans." — " I was at 
New York." 

4. In speaking of one's residence in a city, at is used before the 

number, and in before the street ; as, " He resides at 

No. •." — " He lives in State street." — When both are 

mentioned together, the preposition is commonly under- 
stood before the last ; as, " He lives at No. , State 

street," or, " He lives in State street, No. ." 

823. The preposition is frequently understood, as follows :— 

1. A preposition expressed with the first noun or pronoun of a 

series, may be understood as to the rest ; as, " Be kind to 
John, and James, and Mary" 

2. When the remote object of a verb, governed by a preposi- 

tion, is placed between the verb and its immediate object, 
the preposition is often omitted ; as, " Give me your hand." 
— Bring me a chair." — " Get me a book " (812). 

3. To— is commonly omitted after like, near, nigh ; as, " Like 

his father." — " Near a river," etc. ; and of frequently after 
worthy and unworthy. 



226 ENGLISH GRA1MAB. 

824. Sometimes the antecedent term of a preposition, and 
sometimes the subsequent (539), is omitted. Thus, the antece- 
dent : " [Isay] in a word." — " All shall know me [reckoning] from the 
least to the greatest." The subsequent : " There is a man I am 
acquainted with " — that is, with whom I am acquainted. The sub- 
sequent is always omitted when it is the indefinite antecedent 
to which a compound relative refers (272) : as, " Give it to who- 
ever will take it." 

825. The phrases, in vain, in secret, at first, at last, in 
short, on high, and the like, may either be parsed together as 
adverbs, or the noun may be supplied, and each word parsed 
separately ; as, " In a vain manner." — "In a secret place" etc. 

826. Adverbs representing adverbial phrases ending with a 
preposition, govern a noun following, in the objective ; as, 
" Maugre hell," that is, " in spite of hell"— Milton. 

827. Though words denoting weight, measure, etc., are evi- 
dently governed by a preposition, yet, as it is for the most part under- 
stood, it is better to dispose of such cases by the following 

Special Mule. 

828* Eule. — Nouns denoting time, value? weight, 
or measure, are commonly put in the objective case, 
without a governing tvord (166, 3) ; as, 

" He was absent six months last year."- — " It cost a shilling." — It is 
not worth a cent" — It weighs a pound." — "The wall is six feet high, 
and two feet thick." 

This may be called the objective of time, weight, value, etc., 
as the case may be. 

829. Nouns denoting time how long, are generally without a 
preposition; as, "He is ten years old." Also, nouns denoting 
time when, in a general or indefinite way ; as, " He came last 
week." But nouns denoting the time when, definitely, or with 
precision, generally have the preposition expresssed ; as, " He came 
last week, on Wednesday, in the evening." 

Position of the Preposition, 

830. Prepositions should be placed before the words which 
they govern, and as near to them as possible ; but netier before 
that as a relative. 

831. Wliom -and which are sometimes governed by a prepo- 



SYNTAX — OBJECT AFTER PREPOSITIONS, 227 

sition at some distance after tliem; this, however, should be 
avoided as much as possible. Thus, " That is the man whom I 
gave the letter to." Generally better thus — " to whom I gave the 
letter." 

832* The preposition ivith its regimen (539) should be 
placed as near as possible to the word to which it is related. 

833. Under thia rule, there is liability to error only in the use of 
pronouns and with regard to position (830). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In each of the following sentences, point out the preposition, and 
the word governed by it. Correct the errors and give a reason for 
the change. Parse the sentences when corrected. 

(818) To who will you give that pen ? — That is a small matter be- 
tween you and I. — He came along with James and I. — He gave the 
book to some one, I know not who.— (831) Who does it belong to ? — 
The book which I read that story in is lost. 

(822) I have been to Boston. — They live in Saratoga Springs. — We 
touched in Liverpool on our way for New York. — He has been to 
home for some days. — He lives at Hudson street, in No. 42. — We re- 
mained in a village in the vicinity of London. 

(823) Be so good as lend to me your grammar. — Get to him a book 
like that. — Ask of me that question again. — This ha3 taught to me a 
lesson which I will always be mindful of. 

(830) The nature of the undertaking was such as to render the pro- 
gress very slow of the work. — Beyond this period the arts can not be 
traced of civil society. 

(832) The wrong position of the preposition and its regimen often 
produces very ludicrous sentences. The following are specimens : — 

Wanted, a young man to take care of some horses, of a religious 
turn of mind. — The following verses were written by a young man 
who has long lain in the grave, for his own amusement. — A public 
dinner was given to the inhabitants, of roast beef and plum pudding. 
— I saw that the kettle had been scoured, with half an eye.-— He rode 
to town, and drove twelve cows, on horseback. — The man was digging 
a well, with a Roman nose. 



228 



ENGLISH GEAMMAR, 



834. Exile XII.— Certain words and phrases 
should be followed by appropriate prepositions. 
The following list may be useful for reference : — 

Ask of 2. person ; for a tiling ; af- 
ter what we wish to hear of. 
Aspire to, after. 



Abhorrence of. 

Abound in, with. 

Abridge from. 

Absent from. 

Access to. 

Accommodate to. 

Accord with. 

Accuse of 

Acquaint with. 

Acquit of 

Acquiesce in. 

Adapted to. 

Adequate to. 

Adhere to. 

Adjudge to. 

Admonish of. 

Address to. 

Admission (access) to. 

Admission (entrance) into. 

Advantage over, of. 

Affinity to, with. 

Affection for. 

Agree with a person ; to a propo- 
sition from another ; upon a 
thing among themselves. 

Agreeable to. 

Allude to. 

Alter to, alteration in. 

Amerce in. 

Annex to. 

Analogy to, with. 

Antipathy to, against 

Approve of. 

Array with, in. 

Arrive at. 

Ascendant over. 



Associate with, seldom to. 

Assent to. 

Assure of. 

Attain to. 

Averse to, from. 

Banish from, to. 

Believe in, sometimes on. 

Bereft of. 

Bestow upon, on. 

Betray to a person ; into a thing. 

Boast of. 

Bind to, in. 

Blush at. 

Border upon, on. 

Call on a person ; at a place. 

Capacity for. 

Careful of, in. 

Catch at. 

Change (exchange) for ; (alter) to, 
into. 

Charge on a person ; with a thing. 

Compare with, in respect of qual- 
ity ; to, by way of illustration. 

Comply, compliance with. 

Composed of. 

Concede to. 

Concur with a person ; in a mea- 
sure ; to an effect. 

Condescend to. 

Confer on, upon. 

Confide in. 

Conformable, conformity to, with. 

Congenial to. 



SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS. 



229 



Congratulate upon, on. 

Consonant to. 

Consist (to be composed) of; (to 
be comprised) in. 

Consistent with. 

Contrast with. 

Conversant with men ; in things ; 
about and among are less 
proper. 

Convict of a crime ; in a penalty. 

Copy after a person ; from a thing. 

Correspond (to be consistent) with; 
(answering or suitable) to. 

Correspondence with. 

Cured of. 

Debar from. 

Defend (others) from; (ourselves) 
against. * 

Demand of. 

Denounce against a person. 

Depend, dependent upon, on. 

Deprive of 

Derogate from; derogatory to. 

Derogation from, of 

Despair of. 

Despoil of. 

Devolve on. 

Die, perish of a disease ; by an in- 
strument, or violence ; for an- 
other. 

Differ, different from. 

Difficulty in. 

Diminish from, diminution of 

Disabled from. 

Disagree with a person ; to a pro- 
posal. 

Disagreeable to. 

Disappointed, of what we do not 
get ; in what does not answer 
when got. 

Disapprove of 



Discourage from; discouragement 
to. 

Disgusted at, with. 

Dispose of; disposed (adj.) to. 

Dispossess of. 

Disqualify for. 

Dissent from. 

Distinct from. 

Divested of. 

Divide between two ; among more. 

Eager in, on, of, for, after. 

Embark in. 

Employ in, on, about. 

Enamored with. 

Encroach upon, on. 

Endeavor after a thing. 

Engage in a work ; for a time. 

Enjoin upon. 

Entrance into. 

Equal to, with. 

Equivalent to. 

Espouse to. 

Estimated at. 

Exception from, to. 

Exclude, exclusion from. 

Exclusive of. 

'Excelled from. 

Expert at (before a noun) ; in (be- 
fore an active participle). 

Fall under disgrace ; from a tree ; 
into a pit ; to work ; upon an 
enemy. 

Familiar to, with ; a thing is fa- 
miliar to us — we with it. 

Fawn upon, on. 

Followed by. 

Fond of 

Foreign to, sometimes from. 

Founded upon, on, in. 

Free from. 

Fruitful in. 



230 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 






Full of. 

Glad of something gained by our- 
selves ; at something that be- 
falls another. 

Grateful to a person ; for favors. 

Hanker after. 

Hinder from. 

Hold of; as, " Take hold of me." 

Impose upon. 

Incorporate (active-transitive) into; 
(intransitive or passive) with. 

Inculcate on. 

Independent of. 

Indulge with a thing not habitual ; 
in a thing habitual. 

Indulgent to. 

Influence on, over, with. 

Inform of about, concerning. 

Initiate into a place ; in an art. 

Inquire. — (see ash) 

Inroad into. 

Inseparable from. 

Insinuate into. 

Insist upon. 

Instruct in. 

Inspection (prying) into; (super- 
intendence) over. 

Intent upon, on. 

Interfere with. 

Intervene "between. 

Introduce into a place ; to a person. 

Intrude into .a place enclosed ; 
upon a person, or a thing not 
enclosed. 

Inured to. 

Invested with, in. 

Lame of 

Level with. 

Long for, after. 

Look on what is present ; for what 
is absent ; after what is distant. 



Made of. 

Made much of. 

Marry to. 

Martyr for. 

Militate against. 

Mistrustful of. 

Need of. 

Obedient to. 

Object to, against 

Observance, observation of. 

Obtrude upon, on. 

Occasion for. 

Offensive to. 

Operate upon, on. 

Opposite, opposition to. 

Partake of; participate of, in. 

Penetrate into. 

Persevere in. 

Pitch upon. 

Poor in. 

Prefer to, over, above. 

Preference to, over. 

Preferable to. 

Prefix to. 

Prejudice against. 

Preside over. 

Prevent from. 

Prevail (to persuade) with,on,upon; 

(to overcome) over, against 
Prey on, upon. 
Productive of. 
Profit by. 
Protect others from ; ourselves 



Pronounce against a person ; on a 

thing. 
Provide with, for. 
Proud of. 
Purge of, away. 
Quarrel with. 
Reckon on, upon. 



SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS. 



231 



Reconcile (to friendship) to; (to 
make consistent) with. 

Reduce (subdue) under ; (in other 
cases) to. 

Reflect upon, on. 

Regard for ; in regard to. 

Rely upon, on. 

Replete with. 

Reproached for. 

Resemblance to. 

Resolve on. 

Respect to ; in respect to, of. 

Restore to. 

Rich in. 

Rob of. 

Rule over. 

Share in, of. 

Sick of. 

Significant of. 

Similar to. 

Sink into, beneath. 

Skillful (before a noun) in; (be- 
fore a participle) at, in. 

Strain out. 



Strip of 

Submit to. 

Sent to. 

Swerve from. 

Taste of, means actual enjoyment ; 
taste for, means capacity or 
genius for. 

Tax with (for example, a crime, an 
act) ; for (a purpose, a state). 

Thankful for. 

Think of, on. 

Touch at. 

Unite (transitive) to; (intransitive) 
with. 

Unison with, to. 

Useful for. 

Value upon, on. 

Vest, before the possessor, in; be- 
fore the possessed, with. 

Wait upon, on. 

Witness of, 

Worthy, unworthy of But after 
these, of is generally omitted. 



835, What preposition it is proper to use, often depends as 
much upon what follows, as upon what goes before. Thus, 
" To fall from a height "—" into a pit "— " in battle "—" to work "— 
" upon an enemy" 

836. Into is used only after verbs of motion, and implies 
entrance. In is used after verbs of motion or rest, t and denotes 
situation, but never entrance ; as, " He went into a carriage, and rode 
in it." 

837* Boast, approve, and disapprove, are often used 
without a proposition following ; so also worthy and un- 
worthy. 

838. The same preposition that follows a verb or adjec- 
tive, usually follows the noun derived from it, and vice 

versa ; as, ft Confide in " — " Confident in " — " Confidence in." 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMA K. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, point out the prepositions and the ante- 
cedent term. If not appropriate, correct, and give the rule. 

This remark is founded with truth. — He was eager of recommend- 
ing him to his fellow-citizens.— -I find great difficulty of writing. — 
Every change is not a change to the better. — Changed for a worse 
shape it can not be. — It is important, in times of trial, to have a friend 
to whom you can confide. — You may rely in the truth of what he 
says. — Many have profited from good advice, but have not always 
been grateful of it. — I have no occasion of his services. — Favors are 
not always bestowed to the most deserving. — This is very different to 
that. — Virtue and vice differ widely with each other. — Come in the 
house. — We rode into a carriage with four horses. — The boy fell under 
a deep pit. — Such conduct can not be reconciled to your profession. — * 
Go, and be reconciled with thy brother. — A man had four sons, and 
he divided his property between them. — I am now engaged with that 
work. — He insists on it that he is right. 



The Possessive Limiting Substantives. 

839. Kule XIII. — A substantive that limits the 
signification of another, must be put in the possessive 
case ; as, " Virtue's reward" — " John's boohs" 

840. The substantive in the possessive case limits the significa- 
tion of the other, by representing the thing named as proceeding 
from, possessed by, or suitable to the person or thing ex- 
pressed by the possessive (165). It is of course necessary, under this 
rule, that the substantives signify different things. 

841. A substantive, limited by the possessive, may be any 
noun in any case, or a verbal noun (462), either alone or with 
its regimen, or modifying words ; as, " On eagle's wings." — " He was 
opposed to John's writing" — " I am in favor of a pupil's composing 
frequently " (896).—" John's having devoted himself too much to study 
was the cause of his sickness " (463). 

842* The noun limited by the possessive is often under- 



SYNTAX — POSSESSIVE. 233 

stood ; as, " Tliis book is John's [book]." It is always omitted after 
the possessive case of the personal pronouns; as, "This book 
is mine, thine, ours" etc. ; and, in this construction, when supplied, 
the possessive case must be changed for the possessive pronoun 
(241) ; as, " This is my book, thy book, our book f not mine book, 
etc. (292). 

84:3. The possessive case, and the preposition of, ivith the 
objective, are often equivalent; as, "My father's house "=" The 
house of my father" But — 

844. Sometimes the idea expressed by of, with the object- 
ive, can not be expressed at all by the possessive; as, "A ring 
of gold"— " A cup of water."— " A piece of land."— "The house of 
refuge," etc. Sometimes, again, the ideas expressed are different ; 
thus, " The Lord's day," means the sabbath ; " The day of the Lord," 
means the day of judgment. "My father's picture," means a picture 
belonging to my father ; " A picture of my father," means a portrait 
of him. " God's love," means only the love which God feels. " The 
love of God," means either the love which God feels to us, or that 
which we feel to him. 

845. Of, before a possessive case, followed by the substantive 
which it limits, usually governs that substantive ; as, " The heat of 
the sun's rays." But of before a possessive, not followed by 
the substantive which it limits, governs that substantive understood, 
and the expression refers to a part of the things possessed ; as, " A 
discovery of [that is, from] Sir Isaac Newton's [discoveries] ;" mean- 
ing, " One of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries " (242). 

846. Even when the possessive case, and of, with the objective, 
are equivalent in meaning, the arrangement and euphony, as 
well as the perspicuity of the sentence, will often render the one ex- 
pression preferable to the other. When this is the case, care should 
be taken to use that form which, in the circumstances, is best. Thus, 
" In the name of the army," is better than, " In the army's name ;" 
"My mother's gold ring/' is better than, "The gold ring of my 
mother." A succession of words in either form is harsh, and may be 
avoided by a proper mixture of the two ; thus, " My brother's wife's 
sister —better, "The sister of my brother's wife." — "The sickness 
of the son of the king" — better, " The sickness of the king's son." 

847. When several nouns come together in the possessive case, 
implying common possession, the sign of the possessive is an- 
nexed to the last, and understood to the rest ; as, " Jane 



234 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and Lucy's books/' that is, books tlie common property of Jane and 
Lucy. But if common possession is not implied, or if several words 
intervene, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to each ; as, 
" Jane's and Lucy's books," that is, books, some of which are Jane's, 
and others Lucy's. " This gained the king's, as well as the people's, 
approbation." 

848. When a name is complete, consisting of more terms than 
one, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only ; as, " Julius 
Caesar's Commentaries."—" John the Baptist's head." — " His brother 
Philip's wife." — " The Bishop of London's charge." Here Julius 
Ccssar's is a complex name, in the possessive ; John and brother are 
in the possessive, without the sign, that being annexed to the words 
Baptist and Philip, in apposition. In the last example, " London " is 
in the objective case, governed by of, and the 's annexed properly 
belongs to Bishop, which limits the word charge. In parsing the 
words separately, the transfer must, of course, be so made. But the 
true reason for annexing 's to London is, that the whole phrase, 
" Bishop of London," is regarded as one term, in the possessive,. limit- 
ing the word charge, and may be so parsed. Thus, " A complex noun 
in the possessive case, limiting the word charge." 

849 . When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, 
the sign of the possessive may be annexed to either ; as, " I called at 
Smith's the bookseller," or, " at Smith the bookseller's." But if, to 
such a phrase, the substantive which it limits is added, the sign of 
the possessive must be annexed to the last ; as, " I called at Smith 
the bookseller's shop." 

8 BO. If the explanatory circumstance be complex, or consist- 
ing of more tertns than one, the sign of the possessive must 
be annexed to the name or first substantive ; as, " This psalm is 
David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the people."—" That book is 
Smith's, the bookseller, in Maiden Lane." 

851. This mode of expression, however, is never elegant, and 
though sometimes used when the governing substantive is under- 
stood, yet it would be better to avoid it, and say, " This is a psalm of 
David, the king," etc., or " This is one of the psalms of David," etc. 
But an expression like this can not, with any propriety, be used when 
the substantive limited by the possessive is added. Thus, " David, 
the king, priest, and prophet of the people's psalm," would be intol- 
erable. 

852. When two nouns in the possessive are used to limit 



SYNTAX — POSSESSIVE. 235 

different words, the sign of tlie possessive must be annexed 
to each ; as, " He took refuge at the governor's, the king's repre- 
sentative," that is, " at the governor's house" 

853. The s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, when 
the first word ends and the following word begins with an s, or 
when the use of it would occasion a disagreeable repetition of 
s-sounds ; as, " For righteousness' sake." — " For conscience' sake." — 
"For Jesus' sake." — "At Jesus' feet" (173). In other cases such 
omissions would generally be improper ; as, " James' book." — " Miss' 
shoes," instead of, " James's book." — "Miss's shoes." 

854. A clause of a sentence should never come between the 
possessive case and the word which it limits ; thus, " She began to 
extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding," should 
be " the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

855. A noun limited by the possessive plural, or by two or 
more nouns severally in the possessive singular, should not be plural 
unless the sense require it. Thus, " The men's health [not healths] 
suffered from the climate." — " John's and William's wife [not wives] 
are of the same age." 

856. The possessive whosesoever is sometimes divided by in- 
terposing the word which it limits : as, " whose house soever" This, in 
general, however, is to be avoided, and to be admitted only when 
euphony and precision are thereby promoted (277). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, show which is the limiting substantive, 
and which is the one limited — where wrong, correct according to the 
rule or observations. 

(839) Virtues reward. — One mans loss is often another mans gain. 
Mans chief end is to glorify God.— -My ancestors virtue is not mine. 
— A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for mans 
advantage. — For Christ sake. — For ten sake. — Which dictionary do 
you prefer— Webster, Walker, or Johnson? — (172) Asa his heart 
was perfect. — John Thompson his book. — Lucy Jones her book. 

(841) He was averse to the nation involving itself in war. — Much 
depends on your pupil composing frequently.— -He being rich did not 
make him happy. — I am opposed to him going on such an expedition. 

(842) That book is James book, and that one is Roberts. — That 
knife is your knife, but I thought it was my knife.-— My book is old, 
but your book and Roberts book are new. 



236 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

(845) That landscape is a picture of my father. — The work you 
speak of is one of Irving.-— Gravitation was a discovery of Sir Isaac 
Newton.™ That is a ring of my mother. 

(846) The world's government is not left to chance. — The tree is 
known by the fruit of it. — The commons' vote was against the measure : 
the lords' was in its favor. — The weekly return of the day of the 
Lord is a blessing to man. — The representatives house is now in 
session. — John's brother's wife's mother is sick. — The severity of the 
sickness of the son of the king caused great alarm. 

(847) William's and Mary's reign. — Cain and Abel's sacrifice were 
not the same. — David and Solomon's reign were prosperous. — John and 
William's wife were cousins.— Men, women, and children's shoes for 
sale. — He cared for his father, and also for his mother's interest. 

(848) Messrs. Sheldon's & Co.'s bookstore is in New York. — Smith's 
and McDougal's printing-office is in Beekman street. — Jack's the 
Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. — The bishop's of London's charge 
to his clergy. The Grand Sultan's Mahomet's palace. — The secre- 
tary's of war report. 

(850 and 851) Call at Smith, the bookseller and stationer's.— The 
parcel was left at Johnson, a merchant in Broadway's. He emulated 
Caesar, the greatest general of antiquity's bravery. General Grant, an 
excellent man and brave soldier's residence. 

(852) That house is Smith, the poor man's friend. — We spent an 
agreeable hour at Wilson, the governor's deputy. — The coach stopped 
at Mr. Brown, Henry's father. 

(853) James father arrived yesterday. — Charles books are com- 
pletely spoiled. — King James translators merely revised former 
translations. — For conscience's sake. 

(854) They condemned the judge's in the case of Bardwell decision. 
— The prisoner's, if I may say so, conduct was shameful. — Peter the 
Hermit's, as he was called, opinion. 

(855) All men have talents committed to their charges. — It is the 
duty of Christians to submit to their lots. — We protest against this 
course, in our names and in the names of our constituents. — A father's 
and mother's loves to their children are very tender. 



SY3STTAX— SUB JUHCTIVE. 237 

The Subjunctive Mood. 

857 i Rule XIV. — The subjunctive mood is used in 
dependent clauses, when both contingency or doubt, 

and futurity, are expressed ; as, "If lie continue to 
study lie will improve." 

858. When contingency or doubt only and not futurity, is im- 
plied, the indicative is used ; as, " If he has money he keeps it." 

859. Contingency or doubt is usually expressed by the connec- 
tives if, though, unless, except, whether, etc. ; but whether 
futurity is implied or not, must be gathered from the context. In 
general, when the sense is the same, with shall, will, or should 
prefixed to the verb, as without it, the subjunctive may be used ; 
otherwise, not. Thus, in the preceding example, " If he continue," 
and " If he shall continue," mean the same thing. 

860. Formerly the subjunctive was used to express contin- 
gency, or doubt, whether futurity was implied or not. Of 
this the English Bible furnishes examples on almost every page (see 
Job xx., 12-14), where present usage would require the indicative. 
The tendency, at present, is to the other extreme. The present or 
future indicative, or past potential, is now more generally used in- 
stead of the present subjunctive (391); and this has led some gram- 
marians to reject the subjunctive altogether, and to regard what was 
formerly called the present subjunctive as an elliptical form of the 
future indicative, or past potential. It appears to be certain, how- 
ever, that there are forms usually called the present subjunctive, 
established by the authority of the best writers of every age, not ex- 
cepting even the present, which can not be disposed of in this way ; 
for example, " It is no matter whether this or that be in itself the less 
or the greater crime."— Lillo.—" The question is not whether man be a 
free agent." — Hobbes. " If this be an error, it is a harmless one." In 
none of these can shall, or will, or should be introduced, without 
changing or destroying the sense. In all of them, present usage 
would substitute is for be. It will not do, however, for the gramma- 
rian to set up a rule, by which established and reputable usage is con- 
demned, though the present taste tends another way. Still, there 
are cases in which this change is inadmissible (390). 

861. Lest and that, annexed to a command, require the sub- 
junctive form ; as, "Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty."— 



238 ENGLISH GEAMMAB. 

" Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or had." And 
sometimes without a command ; as, " They shall bear thee up, lest 
thou dash thy foot against a stone." — " Is not this the fast that I have 
chosen, — that thou bring the poor to thy house ?" 

862. If 9 with hut following it, when futurity is denoted, requires 
the suhjunctive mood ; as, " If he do but touch the hills, they shall 
smoke." But when future time is not implied, the indica- 
tive is used ; as, " If he does but whisper, every word is heard dis- 
tinctly." 

863. The subjunctive mood is used to express a wish or desire / 
as, " I wish I were at home." — " Oh that he were wise !" 

864. A supposition or wish, implying a present denial of the 
thing supposed or desired, is expressed by the past subjunctive ; as, 
" If my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight," 
implying, " It is not of this world." — " Oh that thou wert as my bro- 
ther !" implying, " Thou art not " (439, 2). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

What verbs, in the following sentences, should, according to the 
rule, be in the subjunctive mood, and what in the indicative ? Cor- 
rect them accordingly — parse the sentences corrected. 

(857) If a man smites his servant and he dies, he shall surely be put 
to death.— We must go to-morrow, unless it rains. — There will be 
enough to do next week, if the weather is good. — Though the sky be 
clear, it is cold. — He will maintain his cause, though he loses his es- 
tate. — Ask John if he know when the legislature meets. — If he know 
any thing, he surely knows that, unless he gets better, he can not be 
removed. — If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be 
made bread. 

(861) Take care that the horse does not run away. — See that thou 
dost it not. — Let him that standeth take heed lest he falls. — Kiss the 
son, lest he is angry. 

(862) If he is but in health, it will be the cause of great thankful- 
ness . — if fre does but run, he will soon overtake them. — Oh that he 
was wise } — I wish I was at home. 

(864) If I was not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. — If it was not 
so, I would have told you.— If he was a year older, I would send him 
,to school. — Was gold more abundant, it would be of less value. — Was 
I he, I would accept the offer. 



SYNTAX — INFINITIVE. 239 



The Infinitive Mood. 

865 • Kule XV. — The infinitive mood is governed 
by verbs, nouns, or adjectives ; as, "I desire to 

learn."- — " A desire to learn." — " Anxious to learn." 

866. The infinitive is a sort of verbal noun, and has the construc- 
tion of both a verb and a noun. 

86 '7 '•. As a noun, the infinitive may be : — 1. The subject of a 
verb (394) ; as, " To play is pleasant." 2. The object of a verb (802)~; 
as, " Boys love to play" 3. The predicate-nominative after an 
attributive verb (798) ; as, " He is to be married." 4. In apposi- 
tion with another noun (670) ; as, " Spare, spare your friends the 
task, to read, to nod, to scoff, condemn" 5. The object of a prepo- 
sition (819); as, "About to depart." — "What went ye out for to 
see ?" 

868. As a verb (at the same time that the infinitive is used as a 
noun), it may have all the modifications of the verb in respect 
of time, government, or adjuncts, forming, with them, an abridged 
sentence 9 or clause, or phrase (653) ; as, " To see the sun at mid- 
night is impossible." Here, to see is modified by its object the 
sun, and by the adjunct at midnight, and the whole phrase is the 
subject of is. Hence the following 

Special Mules* 

869. Rule 1. — One verb being the subject (762) of anotlier, is 
put in the infinitive; as, " To study is profitable" (872). 

870. Rule 2. — A verb in the infinitive may be the object of 
another verb; as, " Boys love to play"—" They seem to study (394; 
C30, 4 ; 802). 

871* Verbs which take the infinitive as their object, are transitive 
verbs in the active voice ; and the infinitive, either alone, or modified 
by other words, is equivalent to the objective case (802). Verbs fol- 
lowed by the infinitive as an attribute of their subject are intransitive 
or passive verbs, which form a sort of modified copula between their 
subject and the infinitive following. Thus, " The watch seems to go " 
=" The watch is apparently going" (797). 

872. Rule 3.—T7ie infinitive, as the subject or the object of 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a verb, sometimes lias a subject of its own in the objective 

case. 

87 S. In either construction, the infinitive, with its s abject, is an 
abridged dependent clause (658), and when used as the subject, 
is introduced by for. Thus, subject — " For us to do so would be im- 
proper "=" That we should do so would be improper." Object — " I 
know him to be an honest man "="1 know that he is an honest man." 
Here the object of know is neither him, nor to be, etc., separately, but 
the whole clause, " him to be an honest man," taken together, equiva- 
lent to, " that he is an honest man." 

874:. In many such sentences, the subject of the infinitive re- 
sembles the direct, and the infinitive itself the indirect object 
of the preceding verb, as in the construction (810). Hence, when the 
verb is changed into the passive form, the objective after the active 
verb (which is also the subject of the infinitive) becomes the subject 
of the passive verb in the nominative, and the infinitive remains after 
it, like the indirect object (811). Thus, active — •" I desired him to 
go." Passive—" He was desired to go." 

875. Rule 4. — The infinitive is used as a predicate-nomi- 
native after any verb as a copula (603) ; as " You are to blame " (396). 

870. When used as a predicate nominative after the verb to be, 
the infinitive denotes — 

1. An equivalent expression ; as, " To obey is to enjoy" 

2. What is possible or obligatory ; as, "Gold is to be found 
in California."—" The laws are to be observed." 

3. What is settled and determined upon, and, of course, 
future ; as, " The ship is to sail to-morrow." 

877. Rule 5. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after the 
verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let, in the 
active voice, nor after let in the passive; as, "I saw him do it."-— 
" You need not go." — " He was let go." 

878. To this rule there are some exceptions. As it relates only 
to euphony and usage, to may be inserted when harshness will not 
thereby be produced ; thus, " Conscious that his opinions need to be 
disguised."— McKenzie. 

879. For the same reason, to is sometimes omitted after the 
verbs perceive, behold, observe, have, and know. 

880. When several infinitives come together in the same con- 
struction, the sign to, expressed with the first, is sometimes omitted 



syntax — ii^pinitive. 241 

before those that follow ; thus, " It is better to be a king and die, than 
to live and be a prince." This should never be done when either harsh- 
ness or obscurity would be the result. 

i 

881. To, the sign of the infinitive, should never be used /or the 
infinitive itself. Thus, " I have not written, and I do not intend 
to" is a colloquial vulgarism for, " I have not written, and do not in- 
tend to write" 

882. Kulb 6. — The infinitive is used to express the purpose, 

end, or design of the preceding act ; as, " Some who came to scoff, • 
remained to pray" Here, to scoff, and to pray are not governed by 
came and remained, but are put without a governing word, to ex- 
press the end for which they came and remained. 

883. This construction of the infinitive is sometimes preceded by 
the phrase, "in order," and formerly was preceded by for; as, 
" What went ye out for to see f" This is now obsolete. 

884. Eule 7. — In comparisons, the infinitive mood is put 
after so as, too, or than ; as, " Be so good as to read this letter." 
— " Too old to learn." — " Wiser than to undertake it." Some consider 
this construction as elliptical, and that the infinitive depends on a 
word understood. 

885. The infinitive is sometimes used to assign, in an 
abridged form, the reason of that which goes before ; as, " Base 
coward that thou art, to flee I" — "Ungrateful man ! to waste my for- 
tune, rob me of my peace/ etc. — " Must not one sigh to reflect on so 
grave a subject?" 

886. The infinitive is sometimes put absolutely , without a 
governing word ; as, " To say the truth, I was in fault." 

887 . The infinitive is sometimes omitted ; as, " I consider him 
[to be] an honest man." 

888. The verb have, followed by the infinitive, sometimes ex- 
presses obligation or necessity ; as, " We have to do it," that is, 
" We must do it." 

889. In parsing, the infinitive, in these several constructions, may 

be briefly stated thus : " The infinitive as the subject of ," — " as 

the object of ," — " as the predicate-nominative after ," — " The 

infinitive of purpose — comparison — cause — used absolutely." 

Note. — When the infinitive represents the act of any particular 
person or thing, its subject should always be stated. 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

[There is but little liability to err in the use of this mood, except 
in its tense (920, 921), and in the improper use or omission of the sign 
to. When there is no rule to authorize the omission, it should be 
inserted.] 

(865) Strive learn.— They obliged him do it. — (869) It is better live 
on a little than outlive a great deal.— It is better to be a king and die, 
than live and be a prince.— (870) He scorns either to temporize, or 
deceive, or be guilty of evasion. 

(877) You need not to be so serious. — I have seen some young per- 
sons to conduct themselves very discreetly. — He bid me t® go home.— 
They all heard Mm to say it. — He was heard say it by everybody. — 
They were seen pass the house. — I have observed some satirists to 
use the term. — Dare be wise. — They were bid come into the house. — 
(881) Be sure to write yourself, and tell him to. — I strive to live as 
God designed me to. 

[Point out the use of the infinitive in the following correct sen- 
tences, and show how it is governed.] 

It too often happens that, to be above the reach of want, just places 
us within the reach of avarice.— It does no good to preach generosity, 
or even justice, to those who have neither sense nor soul. — He was 
born to be great. — They thought to make themselves rich. Great 
desires are difficult to be gratified. — To know ourselves, we must 
commence by knowing our own weaknesses.— If we have not always 
time to read, we have always time to reflect. — To be or not to be, 
that is the question. — Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with 
thy might. 



Construction of Participles. 

890* Eule XVL — Participles have the construction 

of nouns? adjectives? and verbs (452, etc.). 

891. The participle as a noun? in the nominative case, may be 
the subject of a verb (762), or the predicate-nominative after 
it (798) ; as, " Saying is not doing" In the objective case, it may 
be the object of a transitive verb (802), or preposition (819); as, 
" Avoid doing evil." — " There is pleasure in doing good." 



SYNTAX — PARTICIPLES. 243 

892. In a substantive phrase, a noun following the present or 
perfect participle (as well as the infinitive, 799) of an attributive verb 
(604), is in the predicate-nominative / as, " His being an expert 
dancer." — " The crime of being a young man" etc. 

893. The participle, as an adjective, expresses an attribute 
of a noun or pronoun, tvithout affirmation ; as, " The sword 
hangs rusting on the wall." 

894. The participle 9 while used as a noun or adjective, may 
be modified in all respects as the verb (630). 

895. To participles used in these ways, the rules of syntax 
for nouns, adjectives, and verbs, may of course be applied* 

Special Mules. 

896. Exile 1. — When the present or perfect participle is used 
as a noun, a noun before it is vut in the possessive case (841) ; 
as, " Much depends on the pupil's composing frequently." — " John's 
having done so is evident." 

897. But a pronoun in this construction must be the possessive 
pronoun, and not the possessive case ; as, " Much depends on 
your composing," etc. — not yours. 

898. In many cases, the nominative or the objective before the 
present participle as an adjective, will express nearly the same 
idea. Thus, "Much will depend on the pupil's composing," and 
" Much will depend on the pupil composing," mean substantially the 
same thing. Still, the construction is different : in the first, the 
dependence is on the composing ; in the second, it is on the pupil ; and 
though in these examples the sense is nearly the same, yet there are 
often examples in which the sense is entirely different. Thus, " What 
do you think of my horse's running to-day V implies he has run, and 
asks, " How do you think he ran ?" But " What do you think of my 
horse running to-day V implies he has not run, and asks, " Do you 
think he should run ?" 

899. Rule 2. — When the present participle, used as a noun, 
has an article or adjective before it, the preposition of follows ; 
as, " By the observing of these rules." — " This was a complete forsaking 
of the truth." 

900. In this construction, the participle becomes simply a 
noun, and can not be modified as a verb. Hence we can not 
say, " By the observing carefully of these rules ;" because the adverb 



244 ENGLISH GBAMMAE. 

carefully can not modify a noun. But we can say, " By the careful 
observing of," etc. ; because careful, being an adjective, can modify a 
noun. Or we can say, " By observing these rules carefully/' etc. ; 
because the and of being both removed, observing can be modified as a 
verb (922). 

901. Both the article and of may be omitted ; but not the one 
without the other. By this omission, the participle becomes a parti- 
cipial noun, and can be modified as the verb (462). Of can not be 
used when a preposition follows. 

902. So here, again, in either of these constructions, the sense in 
many cases will be the same. Thus, "By the observing of these 
rules he became eminent," and " By observing these rules he became 
eminent," express the same idea. But, as in the other case (898), so 
here, there are examples in which the sense is entirely different. 
Thus, " He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the phi- 
losopher," and " He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the phi- 
losopher," mean entirely different things. So, " At the hearing of the 
ear, they will obey," and " At hearing the ear, they will obey." The 
first is sense — the last, nonsense. 

In such cases, all ambiguity will be avoided by observing the 
following : — 

90S. Rule 3. — When the verbal noun expresses something of 
which the noun following denotes the doer, it should have the 
article and the preposition ; as, " It was said in the hearing of 
the witness." But when it 'expresses something of which the noun 
following does not denote the doer, but the object, both should be 
omitted ; as, " The court spent some time in hearing the witness." 

904. Rule 4. — The past participle, and not the past tense, 
should be used after the auxiliaries have and be ; as, " I have 
written, 97 not wrote. — " The letter is written 77 not wrote. 

905. So, also, the past participle should not be used for the past 
tense ; as, " He ran, 99 not run. — " I saw, 77 not seen. — " I did 97 not done, 

906. In many verbs whose present passive expresses, not the pre- 
sent continuance of the act, but the result of the act in a finished 
state, the present participle active has a passive as well as an 
active sense, and is used with the auxiliary verb to be, to express the 
present passive progressively ; as, " The house is building, 99 not being 
built. When, in such verbs, the participle in ing has not a passive 
sense, or where the use of it in a passive sense would be ambiguous, 
a different form of expression should be used (456, etc.). 



SYNTAX — PARTICIPLES. 245 

907* The participle is sometimes used absolutely 9 having 
no dependence on any other word ; as, " Properly speaking, there is 
no such thing as chance " (769, 770). 

' EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, correct the errors, and give a reason for 
the change : — 

(892). Its being me need make no difference. — We could not be sure 
of its being him. — The whole depended on its being them. 

(898) Man rebelling against his Maker brought him into ruin. — 
Joseph having been sold by his brethren was overruled for good. — A 
man being poor does not make him miserable. — (895) What do you 
think of my horse running to-day ? Did he run well ? — What think 
you of my horse's running to-day ? Will it be safe ? 

(899) He spends part of his time in studying of the classics. — By the 
obtaining wisdom you will command respect. — By obtaining of wis- 
dom you will command respect. — The learning any thing well requires 
application. — Learning of any thing well requires great application. — 
Because of provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred 
them. — (903) In the hearing of the will read, and in the examining 
of sundry papers, much time was spent. — The greatest pain is suffered 
in the cutting of the skin. 

(904) He has broke his cup. — I have drank enough. — The tree was 
shook by the wind. — The tree has fell. — I seen the man who done it. 
— He has began the work. — Some fell by the wayside and was trode 
down. 

The following sentences from E. Everett, Daniel Webster, Irving, 
N. A. Keview, Cooper, Bancroft, Thomas Brown, Sir G. M'Kensie, 
Butler, etc., have been changed into modern newspaper English. 
Restore them, according to (908). 

The fortress was being built. — The spot where this new and strange 
tragedy was being acted. — An attempt was being made in the English 
Parliament. — The magnificent church now being erected in the city of 
New York. — While these things were being transacted in England. — 
While the ceremony was being performed. — The court was then being 
held. — And still be being done and never done. — Wheat is being sold 
at a fair price. — Gold is being found in great quantities. — A report is 
now being prepared. — Goods are now being sold off at first cost,-— 
While the necessary movement was being made. 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Connection of Tenses. 

908* Eule XVII. — In the use of verbs, and words that, 
in point of time, relate to each other, the order of 
time must ie observed; as, "I have known him these 
many years "— not, " I know him these many years ;" nor, 
" I knew him these many years." 

909* Remahk. — The particular tense necessary to be used must 
depend upon the sense, and no rules can "be given that will 
apply to all cases. But it may be proper to observe — 

910m JVhaf is always true must be expressed in the pre- 
sent tense ; as, " The stoics believed that ' all crimes are equal ' " (403). 

911, The present-perfect, and not the present tense should 
be used in connection with words denoting an extent of time continued 
to the present ; thus, " They continue with me now three days," 
should be, " have continued " (407). 

912, The present-perfect tense ought never to be used in 
connection with words which express past time ; thus, " I have for- 
merly mentioned his attachment to study," should be, " I formerly 
mentioned," etc. 

913, To express an event simply as past , without relation to 
any other point of time than the present, or as taking place at a cer- 
tain past time mentioned, the past tense is used ; as, " God created 
the world." — " In the beginning, God created the world." Exercises 
in (912) are examples. 

914, When we wish to represent an event s,spast at or before 
a certain past time referred to, the verb must be put in the past- 
perfect tense* Thus, when we say, " The vessel had arrived at nine 
o'clock," we mean, at nine o'clock the arriving of the vessel was past. 
But when we say, " The vessel arrived at nine o'clock," we mean, 
the arriving of the vessel was then present 

91 5, It is always essential to the use of this tense that the event 
be past at the time referred to. It is proper to notice here, also, that, 
in pointing out the time of a past event, two points or periods of time 
are often mentioned,— -the one for the purpose of ascertaining the other. 
Thus, " We arrived an hour before sunset" Here the past-perfect is 
not used, though the arrival is represented as past before a past time 



SYNTAX — T E JST S E S • 247 

mentioned, viz., sunset, because sunset is not the time referred to, 
but is mentioned in order to describe that time ; and at the time 
described, the event of arriving was not past, but present. If in this 
example we omit the word " hour," and merely say " before sunset," 
the construction will be the same. This will show that it is correct 
to say, "Before I went to France I visited England," because the 
visiting of England is represented as present, and not past, at the time 
indicated by the word before. But if the event mentioned is repre- 
sented as past at the time indicated by the word before, or if the sen- 
tence is so arranged that only one point of past time is indicated at 
which the event referred to is past, the past-perfect must be used ; 
as, " They had arrived before we sailed." — " They arrived after we 
had sailed." — I had visited England when we returned to America." 

916* The present and the past of the auxiliaries shall 9 will, 
may, can, should never be associated in the same sentence ; 
and care must be taken that the subsequent verb be expressed in the 
same tense with the antecedent verb (844) ; thus, " I may, or can do 
it now, if I choose"—" I might or could do it it now, if I chose" — " I 
shall or will do it when I can." — " I may do it if I can." — " I once 
could do it, but I would not." — " I would have done it then, but I 
could not." — " I mention it to him that he may stop if he choose." — " I 
mentioned it to him that he might stop if he chose." — " I have men- 
tioned it to him, that he may stop." — " I had mentioned it to him 
that he might stop." — " I had mentioned it to him that he might have 
stopped, had he chosen" 

917* In dependent clauses, the past-perfect indicative or potential 
is used to express an event antecedent to, but never contemporary 
with, or subsequent to, that expressed by a verb in the past tense in 
the leading clause. " Thus, we can say, " I believed he had done it," 
but not, " I hoped he had done it ;" because belief may refer to 
what is past, but hope always refers to something future. See also 
the infinitive (920, 921). 

918. When should is used instead of ought to express present 
duty (363), it may be followed by the present or present-perfect ; as, 
"You should study, that you may become learned." 

919. The indicative present is frequently used after the 
words when, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the 
relative time of a future action (406) ; as, " When he comes he 
will be welcome." When placed before the present-perfect indica- 
tive, these words denote the completion of ''a future action or event ; 
as, " He will never be better till he had felt the pangs of poverty." 



248 ENGLISH GRAIMAE. 

020. A verb in tlie infinitive mood must be in the present 
tense (446), when it expresses wliat is contemporary in point of 
time with the principal verb, or subsequent to it ; as, " He appeared 
to oe a man of letters." — " The apostles were determined to preach 
the gospel." Hence, verbs denoting hope, desire, intention, or 
command^ must be followed by the present infinitive, and 
not by the perfect (451). 

021. But the perfect infinitive must be used to express what 
is antecedent to the time of the principal verb ; as, " Romulus is 
said to have founded Rome. 

EXEKCISES TO BE COKEEOTED. 

(910) The doctor said that fever always produced thirst. — The 
philosopher said that heat always expanded metals. 

(911) I know the family more than twenty years. — I am now at 
school six months. — My brother was sick four weeks, and is no 
better. — He tells lies long enough. 

(912) He has lately lost an only son. — He has been formerly very 
disorderly. — I have been at London last year, and seen the king last 
summer. — I have once or tw^ce told the story to our friend before he 
went away. 

(914) After Columbus made his preparations, he set out on his voy- 
age of discovery. — When we finished our lessons, we went out to 
play. — He that was dead sat up and began to speak. — It was a strange 
thing to me, for I never saw such a thing before. 

(918) I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me in that par- 
ticular. — Ye will not come to me, that ye might have life. — Be wise 
and good, that you might be happy. — He w as told his danger, that he 
may shun it. 

(917) We had hoped that Lord Nugent would have been able to 
collect much new and interesting information. — Columbus hoped that 
he would have rendered the natives tributary to the crown of Spain. 
— We expected that they would have come. 

(918) He should study diligently, that he might become learned. — 
We should respect those persons, because they continue long attached 
to us. 

(919) We shall welcome him when he shall arrive. — As soon as he 
shall return we will recommence our studies. 



SYITAX — ADYEEBS. 249 

(920) From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to 
have been a man of learning. — Our friends intended to have met us. — 
He was afraid he would have died. 

(921) Kirstall Abbey, now in ruins, appears to be an extensive build- 
ing. — Lycurgus, the Spartan law-giver, is said to be born in the nine 
hundred and twenty-sixth year before Christ. 



Construction of Adverbs. 

922. Etjle XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjec- 
tives, and oilier adverbs ; as, "John speaks distinctly ; 
lie is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly" 

[See Etymology of Adverbs, 523, etc.] 

923. A few adverbs sometimes modify nouns or pro- 

nouns (526) ; as " Not only the men, but the women also, were pre- 
sent." — " I, even I, do bring a flood/' — Gen. vi. 17. 

924. An adverb sometimes modifies a preposition, and 
sometimes an adjunct or clause of a sentence (525); as, "He sailed 
nearly round the globe." — " Just below the ear." — " Verily, I say unto 
you" 

Special Mules. 

925. Utile 1. — Adverbs should not be used as adjectives, 
nor adjectives as adverbs (686, 687). 

Thus, " The above [preceding] extract." — " It seems strangely 
[strange]" — "We arrived safely [safe]." — " He writes beautiful [beau- 
tifully]" 

Remark — Though it is perhaps never necessary to use an adverb 
as an adjective, yet the authority of good writers has so far sanc- 
tioned the violation of this rule in certain cases, that remonstrance 
would be unavailing. Thus, such phrases as the following are com- 
mon : " The above rule ;" — " the then ministry ;" — " for very age ;" — 
"the hither side ;" — "thine often infxrmities," and the like. Adverbs 
so used should, of course, be reckoned adjectives, and parsed as 
such. 

926. The adverbs hence, thence, whence, meaning from this 
place, from that place, from which place, properly slio aid r noi have 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

from before them, because it is implied. But the practice of the 
best writers has so sanctioned the use of it, that the omission of it 
would now sometimes appear stiff and affected. 

927. After verbs of motion, the adverbs hither, thither, 

whither, are now used only in solemn style. In ordinary discourse, 
here, there, and where, are used instead of them ; as, " We came here." 
" They walked there." — " Where did he go ?" 

928. Where should not be used for in which, unless the 
reference is to place. Thus, " They framed a protestation, where [bet- 
ter, in which] they repeated their former claims." 

929. The adverbs notv, then, tvhen, where, in such phrases 
as till now, till then, since when, to where, etc., are sometimes used by 
good writers as nouns. This, however, is rare in prose and should 
not be imitated. In poetry it is more common (1048). 

930* Of this character are the expressions at once, far from 
hence, etc. ; but these are now established idioms, and in parsing 
are regarded as one word (535, 6). 

9 SI . There, properly an adverb of place, is often used as an in- 
troductory expletive ; as, " There came to the oeach a poor exile " 
(529). 

932. Rule 2. — Two negatives in the same clause are equiva- 
lent to an affirmative, and should not he used unless affirmation is 
intended ; as, " I can not drink no [any] more," or " I can drink no 
more." 

Remark. — But a repetition of the negation by independent 
negative words or phrases, or by transferring the word neither to the 
end of the clause, usually strengthens the negation ; as, " There 
is none righteous, no, not one." — " He will never consent, not he, nor 
I neither" 

933* One negative is sometimes connected with another implied 
in the negative prefixes dis, tin, im, in, il, ir, etc. ; as, " You 
are not unacquainted with his merits," that is, " You are acquainted/' 
etc. In this way a pleasing variety of expression is sometimes pro- 
duced. But the word only, with the negative, preserves the 
negation / as, " He was not only illiberal, but even covetous." 

934. The adverbs nay, no, yea, yes, often stand alone as 
a negative or an affirmative answer to a question ; as, " Will he go T 
— "Jfo"="He will not go."— "Is he at home?"—" F^"="He is at 



SYNTAX — ADVERBS, 251 

home." Amen is an affirmative verb, equivalent to " Be it so" or 
" May it be so" 

935. No, before a noun, is an adjective; as, " No man.* 
Before an adjective or adverb in the comparative degree, it is an 
adverb; as, "No taller." — "No sooner" In all other cases the 
proper negative is not; as, "He will not come." — " Whether he come 
or not" 

Position of the Adverb. 

936. Rule 3. — Adverbs are for the most part placed before 
adjectives 9 after a verb in the simple form, and after the first 
auxiliary in the compound form ; as, " He is very attentive, be- 
haves well, and is much esteemed." 

937 • This rule applies generally to adverbial adjunct phrases 
as well as to adverbs (825). 

938. This is to be considered only as a general rule, to which 
there are many exceptions. Indeed, no rule for the position of 
the adverb can be given which is not liable to exceptions. That order 
is the best which conveys the meaning with most precision. In order 
to this, the adverb is sometimes placed before the verb, or at 
some distance after it. 

939. Never, often, always, sometimes, generally pre- 
cede the verb. Not, with the participle or infinitive, should gene- 
rally be placed before it (500). 

94=0. The improper position of the adverb only often occasions 
ambiguity. This will generally be avoided when it refers to a sen- 
tence or clause, by placing it at the beginning of that sentence or 
clause ; when it refers to a predicate, by placing it before the 
predicated term ; and when it refers to a subject, by placing it 
after its name or description ; as, " Only acknowledge thine ini- 
quity." — " The thoughts of his heart are only evil." — " Take nothing 
for your journey but a staff only." These observations will generally 
be applicable to the. words merely, solely, chiefly, first, at 
least, and perhaps to a few others. 

94:1. In prose, to, the sign of the infinitive, or rather a part of it, 
should never be separated by placing an adverb immediately 
after it. Thus, " They are accustomed to carefully study their les- 
sons," should be " to study carefully" or " carefully to study" etc. 

942. The adverb enough is commonly placed after the ad- 



252 ENGLISH GUAM MAR. 

Jeetive wliicli it modifies ; as, "A large enough house " — " A house 
large enough for all." 

948. Ever and never are sometimes improperly confounded ; 
thus, " Seldom or ever" should be " Seldom or never/' or " Seldom, 
if ever." Ever so, referring to quantity or degree, means in whatso- 
ever degree. Hence, " Charming never so wisely," should be " ever 
so wisely." So, " Ever so much " — " ever so wise," etc. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

[As adverbs are uninfected, mistakes are liable to be made chiefly 
in their position, or in using as adverbs words that are not so, or in 
using adverbs where other words are required.] 

Correct the errors in the following : — 

(925) They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. — The 
then emperor was noted for his cruelty. — She walks graceful. — He 
spoke eloquent. — She did that work good. — Our friends arrived safely. 
— His expressions sounded harshly. — She is a remarkable pretty girl. 
— My foot slipped, and I pretty near fell down. 

(926) He departed from thence into a desert place. — I will send thee 
far from hence to the Gentiles. — From hence ! away ! 

(927) Where art thou gone ? — And he said unto me, " Come up 
here." — The city is near, oh! let me escape there. — Where I am, 
there ye can not come. 

(928) He drew up a petition, where he represented his own merit. — 
The condition where I found him was deplorable. — He went to London 
last year, since when I have not seen him. 

(982) I can not do no more. — He will never be no taller. — He did 
not say nothing at all. — I have received no information on the subject, 
neither from him nor from his friend. — I can not see to write no more. 
— Nothing never can justify ingratitude. — (935) Be so kind as to tell 
me whether he will do it or no. 

(936) We should not be overcome totally by present events. — We 
always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. — It is impossible con- 
tinually to be at w ork. — Not only he found her employed, but pleased 
and tranquil also. — In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear care- 
fully requires to be consulted as well as the sense. — They seemed to 
be nearly dressed alike. — (937) I wished that any one would hang me 
a hundred times, 

(938) The women contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily 



syntax — cokjustctio^s: 253 

to assist the government. — He determined to invite back the king, 
and to call together his friends. — (938) Having not known or having 
not considered the measures proposed, he failed of success. 

(940) Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. — By greatness I 
do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the distinctness 
of a whole view. — Only you have I known of all the nations of the 
earth. — In promoting the public good, we only discharge our duty. — 
He only read one book, not two. — He read the book only, but did not 
keep it. — He only read the book, but not the letter. — He chiefly spoke 
of virtue, not of vice. — He only reads English, not French. 

(941) Scholars should be taught to carefully scrutinize the senti- 
ments advanced in the books they read. — To make this sentence per- 
spicuous, it will be necessary to entirely remodel it. 



Construction of Conjunctions. 

944. Kule n XIX. — Conjunctions connect words, 
phrases, or sentences (561). 

945. Words of the same class, having a similar relation 
to another word to which they belong, are connected by a conjunction. 
Thus— 

1. Nouns or pronouns ; as, "James and John and /are here." 

2. Adjectives ; as, " k. prudent, crave, and honorable man." 

3. Verbs ; as, " Caesar came, and saw, and conquered." 

4. Adverbs, or adverbs and adjuncts; as, "He won the prize 

fairly and honorably," or "fairly and with honor," or with 
fairness and with honor." 

5. Prepositions ; as, " To and from the city. — " Up and down 

the hill." 

946. Verbs connected have the same subject; as, "James 
reads and writes." 

947* Nouns or pronouns connected in the nominative case, 
either as subjects or attributes, are related as such to the same 
verb ; as, " John and James are cousins." — " He is a gentleman and 
a scholar." 

948. Nouns or pronouns connected in the possessive case limit 
the sains noun ; as, "John's and James's books." 



254 ENGLISH GEAIMAE, 






949. Nouns or pronouns, connected in the objective case, sue 
the object of the same verb or preposition , as, " He studies grammar 
and logic"—" Give the books to him and me." 

950. When nominatives belong to different verbs, or verbs to 
different nominatives, the conjunction connects the sentences, 
not the words ; as, "John reads and James writes." 

951. Single sentences or clauses are connected by conjunc- 
tions, so as to form one compound sentence; as, "I said that ye 
are gods ; but ye shall die" 

952. Similar sentences, whether dependent or independent, 
are connected by the conjunctions and, or, nor, hut, yet, etc. 

953. Dependent clauses are' connected with their leading 
clauses by such conjunctions, or other connective words, as may pro- 
perly indicate the relation intended (962, 963). 

954. Conjunctions are frequently understood between the 
words or sentences connected ; as, " Caesar came, saw, and conquered." 
— " The men, women, and children, were present."— " It is the part of 
those that are great, to give ; of those that are poor, to ask."— 
" Learning collects materials ; wisdom applies them." 

Special Mules. 

955. Rule 1.— Conjunctions connect the same moods and 
tenses of verbs, and the same cases of nouns and pronouns; as, 
"Do good, and seek peace."—" Honor thy father and mother" 

[This rule applies to the infinitive and participles.] 

956. Verbs of the same mood and tense, under this rule, are 
generally also in the same form (475) ; as, " He reads and writes" 
—not, does write. 

957. Verbs in different clauses, connected by a conjunction, but 
having a different construction, may be in different moods and tenses ; 
as, " I read that I may learn" 

958. When two or more verbs in the compound tenses, or in 
the progressive or emphatic form, or in the passive voice, are con- 
nected, the auxiliary expressed with the first may be under- 

, stood to the rest ; as, " He can neither read nor write."—" Dili- 
gence should be commended and rewarded" Still, however, the repe- 
tition of the auxiliary is often more emphatic ; as, " They shall come, 
and they shall declare his truth." 

959. Verbs of the same mood, tense, or form, connected as a com- 



SYNTAX — CONJUNCTIONS. 255 

pound predicate (627), have the subject expressed with the first and 
understood to the rest ; as, " Csesar came, saw, and conquered" 
But— 

960. When verbs connected are not of the same mood, tense, or 
form, and especially if contrast or opposition, expressed by but 9 
though, yet, is intended, the nominative is frequently repeated ; 
as, " He came, but he would not stay." But still — 

961 . This is to be regarded only as a general direction, in accord- 
ance with, perhaps, the majority of cases, but to which, as a rule, 
there are many exceptions. The object aimed at is to secure 
euphony and perspicuity ; and when these are preserved with- 
out repeating the subject, it may be omitted ; as, " The two charges 
had been, and still are, united in one person." — North British Review. 

962. After expressions implying doubt, fear, or denial, the 

conjunction that is properly used — not lest, out, out that ; as, " I do 
not doubt that he is honest." — " I am afraid that he will die." Also, 
what should never be used for that. Thus, " He will not believe but 
what I am to blame," should be, " but that I am to blame." 

963. Rule 2. — Certain words in the antecedent member of a 
sentence require corresponding connectives in the subsequent 
one ; thus : — 

1. In clauses or words simply connected — 

JBoth requires and (569) ; as, " Both he and I came." 

Either — or (570) ; as, " Either he or I will come." 

Neither nor (570) ; as, " Neither he nor I came." 

Whether — or ; as, " Whether he or I came." 

Though yet ; as, * Though he slay me, yet will I 

trust in him." 
Not only but also ; as, " Not only he but also his 

brother goes." 

2. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison — 

The comparative degree requires than ; as, " He is taller 

than I. 
Other requires than; as, " It is no other than he." 

Else than } as, " What else do you expect than this ?" 

A.S as (expressing equality) ; as, " He is as tall as 

lam." 

Ji S so (expressing equality) ; as, " As the day is, so 

shall thy strength be." 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMA K. 

So requires as (with a negative, expressing inequality) ; as, 
" He is not so learned as Ms brother." 

So that (expressing consequence)-, as, "He is so 

weak that he can not walk." 

Such as (expressing similarity)) as, "He or such 

as he." 

Such that (with a finite verb, to express a conse- 
quence) ; as, " The difference „is such 
that all will perceive it." 

For as and so in comparison, see 531. For as, sometimes regarded 
as a relative, see 271 ; as a connective of words in apposition, 674. 
For the infinitive after so — as, see 884. 

964:, And, or, nor, do not require the corresponding antece- 
dent, and though does not always require yet. By poetic license 
(1018, 6), or and nor are sometimes used as antecedents, instead of 
either, neither (570). 

965. In sentences implying comparison, there is commonly 
an ellipsis in the second member, after than and as / " My pun- 
ishment is greater than [that is which] I can bear." — " My punish- 
ment is as great as [that is which] I can bear." And sometimes 
in sentences not implying comparison, after though and if ; as, 
" Though [it is] coarse it is good." — " He is kind, if [he is] sincere " 
(958, 7). 

966. A relative after than is put in the objective case; as, 
" Satan, than whom none higher sat " (766, 2). This anomaly may 
be regarded as a case of simple enallage (1044, 4). 

967 • Rule 3. — Wlien a subsequent clause or part of a sen- 
tence is common to two different but connected antecedent clauses, it 
must be equally applicable to both ; as, " That work always has been, 
and always will be, admired." — " He is as tall, though not so hand- 
some, as his brother" 

968. When this rule is violated, the correction is made, either — 

1. By altering one of the antecedent clauses, so that the subsequent 
may be applicable to both. Thus, " The story has and will be be- 
lieved," is not correct, because, though we can say, will be believed, we 
can not say, has be believed. It should be, " The story has been, and 
will be believed," or — 

2. If this can not be done, we may complete the construction 
of the first part by annexing its appropriate subsequent, and leave 



SYNTAX — CO^JUSTCITIOKS. 257 

the subsequent of the second understood. Thus, "He was more 
beloved, but not so much admired, as Cynthio," is not correct, because 
we can not say, " He was more beloved as Cynthio. " It should be, 
" He was more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired.' ' 

009, The principle of this rule applies to the appropriate selec- 
tion of words, as well as to their construction. Thus, " This doc- 
trine is founded and consistent with the truth," should be, " founded 
upon and consistent icith," etc. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, point out the conjunctions, the words or 
sentences connected by them — see whether they correspond, according 
to the rules, and if not, correct, and give a reason for the change. 

(955) He reads and wrote well. — Anger glances into the breast of 
a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools. — If he under- 
stand the subject, and attends to it, he can scarcely fail of success. — 
Enjoying health, and to live in peace, are great blessings. — Be more 
anxious to acquire knowledge than about showing it. 

You and me are great friends. — This is a small matter between 
you and I. — My father and him are very intimate. — He is taller than 
me ; but I am older than him. 

(956) He reads and writeth well. — He reads and does write well. — 
He reads and is writing well. — Does he not read and writes well ? — 
Earth hath her solitudes, and so has life. 

(958) He can neither read nor can write. — I will come and will see 
you, and will tell you the whole story. 

(980) Can these persons consent to such a proposal, and will con- 
sent to it ? — How distinguished for talents he is, and how useful 
might be ! — He could command his temper, though would not. 

(962) I do not deny but he has merit. — They were afraid lest you 
would be offended. — We were apprehensive lest some accident had 
happened to him. — We can not deny but what he was ill-treated. 

(983, 1) It is neither cold or hot. — It is so clear as I need not ex- 
plain it. — The relations are so uncertain, as that they require much 
examination. — The one is equally deserving as the other. — I must be 
so candid to own that I have been mistaken. — He was as angry as he 
could not speak. — Though he slay me, so will I trust in him. — He 
must go himself, or send a servant. — There is no condition so secure 
as can not admit of change. — He is not so eminent and as much 
esteemed as he thinks himself to be. 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAK 

(963, 2) He lias little more of the scholar besides the name. — Be 
ready to succor such persons who need thy assistance.— They had no 
sooner risen but they applied themselves to their studies.— These 
savage people seemed to have no other element but war. — He gained 
nothing further by his speech but only to be commended for his 
eloquence. — This is none other but the gate of Paradise. 

(967) I always have, and I always shall be of this opinion. — He is 
bolder, but not so wise as his companion. Sincerity is as valuable, and 
even more so than knowledge,- — Will it be urged that these books 
are as old or even older than tradition ? — This book is preferable and 
cheaper than the other. 



Interjections. 

970* Eule XX.- — Interjections have no gram- 
matical connection with the other words in a sentence 
(556). 

971* After interjections, pronouns of the first person are com- 
monly in the objective case ; those :of the second, in the nomi- 
native ; as, " Ah me !" — " O thou !" 

972, In neither of these, however, does the case depend on the 
interjection. The objective is commonly thought to be governed by 
a word understood ; thus, " Ah [pity'] me !" — " Ah [what will become 
of] me!" The nominative is commonly the nominative of the 
person addressed (773). 



General Rale of Syntax. 

973* In every sentence, the words employed, and the 
■order in which they are arranged, should le such as clearly 
and properly to express the idea intended ; and at the same 
time, all the parts of the sentence should correspond, and a 

regular and dependent construction he preserved 
throughout. 



SYNTAX- GEKERAL RULE. 259 

97^. This maybe regarded as a general rule, applicable to every 
case, and therefore comprehending all the preceding. Though these 
are so full and minute as to embrace almost every thing belonging to 
the proper construction of sentences, yet there will sometimes occur 
instances of impropriety in the use, and arrangement, and connection 
of words, for the avoiding or correcting of which no very specific rule 
can be given. 

97 o* Among the evils to be guarded against, under this general 
rule, are the following : — 

1. The use of words which do not correctly or properly convey 

the idea intended, or which convey another with equal 
propriety. 

2. The arrangement of words and clauses in such a way that their 

relation to other words and clauses is doubtful, or difficult 
to be perceived. 
8. The separating of adjuncts (541) from their prici- 
pals, and placing them so that they may be joined to words 
to which they do not belong (832). 

4. The separating of relative clauses improperly from their 

antecedents (755, 759). 

5. Using injudiciously, or too frequently, the third personal 

2>ossessive pronoun, especially in indirect discourse 
(1129). 

EXERCISES. 

The following sentences are not grammatically incorrect, but from 
some of the causes mentioned above, are obscure, inelegant, ambiguous. 
or unintelligible. Let the pupil point out the error and correct it, and 
give a reason for the correction. 

The son said to his father that he had sinned against heaven. — A 
farmer went to a lawyer, and told him that his bull had gored his 
ox. — The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, wheeled about, 
and halted with the river on their backs. — Nor was Philip wanting 
to corrupt Demosthenes, as he had most of the leading men of 
Greece. — Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip the father 
of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he first opened the way 
into Asia. — Belisarius was general of all the forces under Justinian 
the First, a man of rare valor. — Lysias promised his father never to 
abandon his friends. — Carthage was demolished to the ground, so 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that we are unable to say where it stood, at this day. — Thus ended 
the war with Antiochus, twelve years after the second Punic war, and 
two after it had been begun. — Claudius was canonized among the 
gods, who scarcely deserved the name of a man. 

970. Another class of improprieties arises from the improper 
omission of words 9 by which the grammatical construction of a 
sentence is broken up. As a general rule, the fewer the words by 
which we express our ideas, the better, provided the meaning is 
clearly brought out. This may often be done without using all the 
words necessary to the full grammatical form of a sentence ; and hence, 
as the tendency always is to abbreviate speech, such words as can be 
spared, according to the usage of the language, are properly omitted. 
This omission is called 



Ellipsis (1044, l). 

Eespecting the use of this figure, nothing -more definite can be laid 
down than what is contained in the following 

Special Mules* 

977 > Eule 1. — An ellipsis, or omission of words, is admis- 
sible when they can he supplied by the mind with such certainty and 
readiness as not to obscure the sense. Thus, 

Instead of saying, " He was a learned man, and he was a wise man, 
and he was a good man," we may say, " He was a learned, wise, and 
good man." 

978. According to common usage, an ellipsis of the different 
parts of speech is alloived in the following cases, viz. : — 

1. Noun and Pronoun. — When two or more tilings are as- 
serted of the same subject, the noun or pronoun is expressed before 
the first verb, and omitted before the rest. Also, when the same noun 
or pronoun is the object of several verbs, it is omitted after all except 
the last ; as, " I love, fear, and respect him," instead of, " I love Mm, 
/fear him, and /respect him." 

2. A noun is frequently omitted after the comparative degree ; as, 
" I will pull down my barns, and build greater [barns]." 

3. When two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, the noun 
is omitted after all except the last ; as, " A great, wise, and good 
man," for " A great man, a wise man, and a good man." 



SYNTAX — ELLIPSIS. 261 

4 Adjective and Article. — When an adjective qualifies two 
or more nouns, it is omitted before all except the first only ; as, " Good 
qualities and actions/' — " Happy boys and girls." — " He is an honest, 
learned, and well-bred man," for " an honest, a learned, and a well- 
bred man." 

5. Verbs. — A verb is often omitted after its subject, preceded by 
the comparative degree ; as, " He is wiser than I [amy — " I am 
younger than he [is]." 

6. When several clauses come together, having the same predicate 
verb, the verb is often expressed in the first, and omitted in the rest ; 
as, " The Italians have imitated the Latins ; the English, the Italians ; 
and the Americans, the English." Sometimes it is omitted in the first, 
and expressed in the last ; as, " Not only men, but nations, imitate 
one another." 

7. The verb to be, with its subject, in dependent clauses, is often 
omitted after the connectives, if, though, yet, tvhen, etc. ; as, 
" Study, if [it is] neglected, becomes irksome." — " Though [he was] 
poor, he was honest " (985). 

8. In poetry, verbs which express address or ansiver, are 
often omitted ; as, " To Mm the prince [replied]" Also, when the 
words connected readily indicate what the verb must be, if expressed ; 
as, "IT1 hence to London." — "VYLin" — "Away, old man!" — Shales. 
" Up, up, Glenarkin !" — W. Scott. 

9. The verb is often omitted in the second clause of a sentence 
after the auxiliary, when the same verb is used in the first 
clause ; as, " Tou have read, but I have not [read]" Also, verbs con- 
nected in the same voice, mood, and tense, having the auxiliary with 
the first, omit it with the rest ; as, " He will be loved and respected for 
his virtues." 

10. Adverb. — When an adverb modifies more words than one, 
it is placed only tv it h the last; as, " He spoke and acted grace- 
fully." 

11. Preposition. — When the same preposition connects two or 
more subsequent terms of a relation with one antecedent term, 
is it usually omitted before all except the first; as, "Over the 
hills and valleys." — " Through the woods and wilds." 

12. Conjunction. — When several tvords and clauses come 
together in the same construction, the conjunction is sometimes omit- 
ted entirely, sometimes between each pair, and sometimes before all 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

except tlie last ; as, " He caused the blind to see, the lame to walk, 
the deaf to hear, the lepers to be cleansed." — " We ran hither and 
thither, seeking novelty and change, sympathy and pastime, com- 
munion and love."—" Youth is the season of joy, of bliss, of strength, 
and pride." 

13. Interjection. — The interjections are never omitted ; but, in 
the expression of sudden emotion, all but the most important words 
are commonly omitted ; as, " Well done !" for, " That is well done !" 
Also, after interjections, there is often an ellipsis of the obvious word ; 
as, " O for a lodge," etc., that is, " O how I long for a lodge," etc.— 
" A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse !" that is, " B?*ing me 
a horse. I would give my kingdom for a horse." 

979. Rule 2. — An ellipsis is not allowable, when it would 
obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impro- 
priety; as, " We speak that we do know," for that which, etc. 

980. In general, no word should be omitted by ellipsis, that is 
necessary to the usual construction or harmony of a sentence, or 
to render the meaning perspicuous. 

981. Articles, pronouns, and prepositions, should always be 
repeated when the words with which they stand connected are 
used emphatically. Under such circumstances, even nouns, ad- 
jectives, and verbs, must often be repeated ; as, " Not only the year, 
but the day and the hour were appointed." 

982. It is genera] ly improper, except in poetry, to omit the ante- 
cedent to a relative ; and it is always so, to omit a relative, when 
it is in the nominative. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, omit such words as are not necessary to 
the sense : — 

(978, 1) Cicero was an eloquent man, an able man, a generous man, 
and he was a truly patriotic man. — Avarice and cunning may gain an 
estate ; but avarice and cunning can not gain friends. — (978, 4) He has 
an affectionate brother and an affectionate sister.— (978, 6) Genuine 
virtue supposes our benevolence to be strengthened and to be con- 
firmed by principle. — Perseverance in laudable pursuits will reward 
all our toils, and will produce effects beyond our calculation. — 
(978, 10) We often commend imprudently, as well as censure impru- 
dently. — (978, 11) Changes are almost constantly taking place in men^ 



STITA X; — PARSIKG 203 

and in manners, in opinions and in customs, in private fortunes and 
in public conduct. — (978, 1, 6, 9) He is temperate, he is disinterested, 
he is benevolent. — He regards the truth, but thou dost not regard it. 
— We succeeded, but they did not succeed. 

In the following sentences, supply the words improperly omitted, 
and state why they should be restored : — 

(979) We are naturally inclined to praise who praise us, and to 
flatter who flatter us. — Who best can suffer best can do. — His honor, 
interest, religion, were all embarked in this undertaking. — Many days, 
and even weeks, pass away unimproved. — The captain had several 
men died in his ship. — That is a property most men have, or at least 
may attain. — This property has or will be sold. — It requires few 
talents to which most men are not born, or at least may not acquire. 
— The people of this country possess a healthy climate and soil. — I 
have purchased a house and orchard. 



SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

983. Syntactical Parsing includes etymological, 

, and adds to it a statement of the relation in which 

words stand to each other, and the rules according to 

which they are combined in phrases and sentences. 

Before parsing a sentence syntactically, it should first be ana- 
lyzed, as directed (658), and exemplified (659). 

Model of Syntactical Parsing. 

" The minutest plant or animal, if attentively examined, affords a 
thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent 
hand by which it was created." 

This sentence contains all the parts of speech except the interjection. 
It is parsed etymologically (581, 582), and analyzed (659, 7), which 
see. It may now be parsed syntactically, as follows :■ — 

The is the definite article ; it belongs to plant or animal 

(711), and shows these words to be limited.— Rule III., 
2, " The article the is put," etc. (707). 
minutest. ... is an adjective, compared here by er and est, superla- 
tive, and qualifies plant or animal.— Rule II., 1, " An 
adjective or participle," etc. (676). 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

'plant is a noun, neuter, in the norm native singular, the sub- 
ject of affords and obliges. — Rule VI., " The subject of 
a finite verb," etc. (780). 

or is a disjunctive conjunction, distributive, connecting 

as alternates plant and animal (587).— Rule XIX., 
" Conjunctions connect," etc. (944). 

animal. . . ». . . is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular — same as 
plant — and connected with it by or. 

if is a conjunction, continuative ; it connects its clause 

with the preceding as a condition. — Rule XIX., " Con- 
junctions connect," etc. (944). 

it . (understood) is a third personal pronoun, neuter, in 

the nominative singular ; it stands for plant or animal. 
Rule IV., 2, " When a pronoun refers," etc. (730) ; and 
is the subject of is examined.— -Rule VI., " The subject 
of a finite verb," etc. (780). 

is examined . is a verb, transitive, regular,* in the present indicative, 
passive, expressing an act done to its subject it, with 
which it agrees. — Rule VIII., "A verb agrees," etc. 
(778). 

attentively .. is an adverb, derived from attentive, and compared by 
more and most ; it modifies is examined.— -Rifle XVIII., 
Adverbs modify," etc. (922). 

affords is a verb, transitive, regular ; in the present indicative, 

active, third person singular ; agrees with, and affirms 
of plant or animal.— Rule 3 under Rule VIII., " Two 
or more substantives singular," etc. (785). 

a is the indefinite article, and belongs to thousand. 

It shows that the number is regarded as one aggregate 
(718).— Rule III., 1, " The article a or an," etc. (707, 
728). 

thousand. ... is a numeral adjective, cardinal, qualifying wonders. 
— Rule II., 1, "An adjective or participle," etc. (878). 

wonders is a noun, neuter, in the objective plural, the object of 

affords. — Rule X., "A substantive being the object," 
etc. (801). 



* Conjugating is here omitted for brevity, it being unnecessary, be- 
cause the verb is mentioned as regular (491, note). 



SYNTAX — PARSING. 265 

and is a copulative conjunction ; it connects affords and 

obliges. — Rule XIX., " Conjunctions connect/' etc. (944). 

obliges is the same as affords. See above. 

us is a personal pronoun, first person, masculine or 

feminine, in the objective plural, the object of obliges. — 
Rule X. (801). It is at the same time the subject of to 
admire and to adore. — Rule 3 under Rule XV., " The 
infinitive as the subject," etc. (872, 873). 

to admire. . . is a verb, transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, 
active, governed by obliges. — Rule XV., " The infinitive 
mood is governed," etc. (865). 

and is a copulative conjunction ; it connects to admire 

and to adore. — Rule XIX., "Conjunctions connect," 
etc. (944). 

to adore is the same in parsing and construction as to admire. 

the is the definite article ; it belongs to hand, and 

shows it to be limited. — Rule III., 2, " The article the" 
etc. (707). 

Omnipotent. . is an adjective, not compared, because it does not 
admit of increase (223). It qualifies hand. — Rule II., 1, 
"An adjective or participle," etc. (676). 

hand is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, object of to 

admire and to adore. — Rule X. (801). 

by is a preposition ; it shows the relation between which, 

the subsequent term (538, 539), and was created, the 
antecedent term.—'* A preposition is a word," etc. (538). 

which is a relative pronoun, neuter, in the objective singu- 
lar ; refers to, and agrees with, hand as its antecedent. — 
Rule V., " The relative agrees," etc. (742), and is the 
object of the relation expressed by the preposition by. — 
Rule XI., "A substantive being the object/ etc. (818). 
It connects its clause with hand, and describes it (644, 
614, 5). 

it is a pronoun, same as before ; is the subject of was 

created. — Rule VI., " The subject of a finite verb," etc. 
(760). 

was created.* is a verb, transitive, regular, in the past indicative, 
passive, third person singular ; affirms of, and agrees 
with it.— Rule VIIL, " A verb agrees," etc. (776). 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

In the same manner, parse the other sentences analyzed (659) ; and 
analyze and parse the exercises following them (page 143), and any 
correct sentences from any good author. 

Promiscuous Exercises 

ON THE .RULES OF SYNTAX, ETC. 

{gp In the preceding " Exercises to be Corrected,"' care has been 
taken to insert such examples only as can be corrected by the rule, or 
the observations under which they are placed, or by those which 
precede them. In the following " Promiscuous Exercises," no par- 
ticular arrangement is observed. Every sentence contains one error, 
many of them two, and some of them three or more. Many of the 
errors, too, are such as are often made, and, on account of our familiar- 
ity with them, are not so readily noticed. For example, nobody 
would say, " Him writes." Some, perhaps, might say, " Here is the 
man whom everybody says is the writer of that letter ;" and yet the 
error in both is the same, and violates Rule VI. In all these exam- 
pies for correction, the object aimed at is to put the pupil in posses- 
sion of the idea intended to be expressed — and the exercise for him is 
to express that idea grammatically, in the best manner. There can 
be no danger of imitating an expression which he is forewarned is 
wrong *, while it will exercise his judgment to detect the error, test 
his knowledge of grammar, and be a profitable exercise in composi- 
tion to put the sentence right. 

All these exercises may first be corrected orally — showing wherein 
each is wrong, and why — correcting the error, and giving a reason 
for the change made. They may then be written out in a cor- 
rected state. After that, each sentence may be analyzed as 
directed (658), and then parsed syntactically as directed (983). 

1.— 1. Too great a variety of studies perplex and weaken the judg- 
ment. — 2. I called to see you, but you was not at home. — 3. To act 
with caution, but with steadiness and vigor, distinguish the manly 
character. — 4. The train of our ideas are often interrupted. — 5. They 
were both unfortunate, but neither of them were to blame. 

2. — 1. We arrived safely at our journey's end. — 2. That is a matter 
of no consequence between you and I. — 3. This should not happen 
between such friends as him and me. — 4. Them that seek knowledge 
will find it. — 5. Such are the men whom, we might suppose, know 
better.- — 6. Our welfare and security consists in unity. 7.— All the 
world is spectators of your conduct. 



SYNTAX— PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 267 

3. — 1. Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. — 2. His associates in 
wickedness will not fail to mark the alteration of his conduct. — 3. He 
is taller than me, but I am stronger than him. — 4. Neither riches or 
beauty furnish solid peace and contentment. — 5. The abuse of mercies 
ripen us for judgments. — 6. John, William, and Henry's hats were 
stolen. — 7. A mans manners frequently influence his fortune. — 8. 
Much depends on this rule being observed. — 9. Such will ever be the 
effect of youth associating with vicious companions. — 10. Give to 
every one their due. 

4. — 1. He writes tolerable well. — 2. Three months' notice are re- 
quired to be given previous to a pupil's leaving of the school. — 3. 
That rose smells sweetly. — 4. He employed another friend of his 
father to assert his claim — [whose claim ?] — 5. A soul inspired with 
the love of truth will keep all Ids powers attentive to the pursuit of 
it. — 6. It is the duty of every one to be careful of their reputation. — 7. 
It is remarkable, his continual endeavors to serve us. — 8. This mode 
of expression has been formerly in use. — 9. He promised long ago, 
that he had attended to that matter. — 10. He was expected to have 
arrived earlier. 

5. — 1. Twice three are six. — 2. Five are the half often. — 3. Nine are 
not an even number. — 4. One man and one boy is sufficient. — 5. Two 
is better than one. — 6. TVo are an even number — three are not. — 7. 
Three-fourths are more than one-half. — 8. A drove of forty heads of 
cattle passed along. 

6. — 1. Molasses are thicker than water. — 2. Wheat is being sold for 
a dollar a bushel, and oats is in demand. — 3. The news by the last 
arrival is better than were expected. — 4. Do you not think he writes 
good?— 5 The wind blows coldly from the north, and the snow lies 
deeply on the ground. — 6. James is as tall, if not taller than I am. 
— 7. He puts down the mighty, and exalteth the humble. — 8. Piety 
toward God, as well as sobriety and virtue, are necessary to happi- 
ness. 

7. — 1. Take care who you admit into friendship. — 2. I always under- 
stood it to be he, whom they said wrote that book. — 3. If I was him, 
I would take more care for the future. — 4. We were in Havre when 
the revolution broke out at France. — 5. I have been to Boston for a 
few days, and spend the time very pleasant. — 6. That is the man and 
the horse which we met before. 

8. — 1. This excellent person was fully resigned either to have 



268 ENGLISH GBAMMAK. 

lived or to have died. — 2. Between he and I there is some disparity 
of years, but none between he and she. — 3. To be moderate in our 
views, and proceeding temperately in the pursuit of them, is the best 
way to insure success. — 4. If he does but consider the subject, he will 
no doubt change his opinion. — 5. Ignorance is the mother of fear, as 
well as admiration. — 6. Let him be whom he may, I can not wait 
for him. 

9. — 1. Many have profited from the misfortunes of others. — 2. 
Many ridiculous customs have been brought in use during the hun- 
dred last years. — 3. Is there any person who you can send on that 
business ? — 4. A truth is virtue to which we should pay little regard. 
— 5. The people of the United States enjoys a free Constitution and 
laws. — 6. The pyramids of Egypt stood more than three thousand 
years. — 7. It is thought they have been built by the Egyptian kings. 

10. — 1. He only got the money for a few days. — 2. He was mistaken 
evidently in his calculations. — 3. No man is fit for free conversation, 
for the inquiry after truth, if he be exceedingly reserved ; if he be 
haughty, and proud of his knowledge ; if he be positive and dogma- 
tical in his opinions ; if he be one who always affects to outshine all 
the company ; if he be fretful and peevish ; if he affect wit, and is full 
of puns, or quirks, or quibbles. — 4. Humility neither seeks the last 
place, or the last word. — 5. Either wealth or power may ruin their 
possessor. — 6. Art thou the man who hast dared to insult me ? — 7. 
Oh that the winter was gone ! 

11. — 1. We are often disappointed of things which, before posses- 
sion, promised much enjoyment. — 2. He was accused with acting un- 
fairly, at least in a manner illy adapted for conciliating regard. — 3. 
There is more business done in New York than in any city of the 
United States. — 4. The ship Panama is early expected from Canton 
in the spring. — 5. Every year, every day, and every hour, bring their 
changes. 

12. — 1. No power was ever yet intrusted to man without a liability 
to abuse. — 2. A conceited fool is more abominable than all fools. — 3. 
My gravity never did no one any harm. — 4. Expectation and reality 
makes up the sum total of life. — 5. Music, the love of it, and the prac- 
tice of it, seems to pervade all creation. — 6. The author dreads the 
critic, the miser dreads the thief, the criminal dreads the judge, the 
horse dreads the whip, the lamb dreads the wolf— all after their kind. 
—7. The intellectual and moral censor both have the same ends in 
view. 



SYNTAX — IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS. 



2G9 



13. — 1. I was engaged formerly in that business, but I never shall 
be again concerned in it. — 2. We do those things frequently which 
we repent of afterward. — 3. That picture of your mother's is a very- 
exact resemblance of her. — 4. In reference to that transaction, he de- 
served punishment as much or more than his companions. — 5. Every 
one of those pleasures that are pursued to excess, convert themselves 
into poison. — 6. By these attainments are the master honored, and the 
scholar encouraged. — 7. The temple consisted of one great and seve- 
ral smaller edifices. — 8. Whether he will be learned or no, depends on 
his application. 



A List of Improper Expressions. 

SELECTED CHIEFLY FROM PICKERING^ VOCABULARY. 



Improper. 
The alone God. The alone motive. 
I an't ; you an't ; he an't, etc. 

Any manner of means. 

He was walking back and forth. 

His argument was based on this 

fact. 
The money was ordered paid. 
I calculate to leave town soon. 
A chunk of bread. 
A clever house. 
He conducts well. 

He is considerable of a scholar. 
His farm was convenient to mine. 

He is a decent scholar, writer. 
Her situation was distressing to a 

degree. 
A total destitution of capacity. 
The United States, or either of 

them. 
Equally as well ; as good, etc. 



Proper. 

The one God. The only motive. 

I am not ; you are not ; he is not, 
etc. 

Any means. 

backward and forward. 

His argument was founded on this 
fact. 

The money was ordered to be paid. 

I intend to leave town soon. 

A piece of bread. 

A good house. 

He conducts himself well, respect- 
ably. 

He is a pretty good scholar. 

His farm was contiguous to mine, 
close. 

He is a pretty good scholar, writer. 

was extremely distressing. 

A total want of capacity. 

The United States, or any of them. 

Equally well, or just as well, etc 



270 



ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 



Mr. A- 



Improper. 

- B— ■ — , Esq. 



B- 



I expect he must have died long 

ago. 
These things are in a bad fix. 
Will you fix these things for me ? 

What do folks think of it ? 
Talents of the highest grade. 
Do you love play ? I guess I do. 
We may hope the assistance of 

God. 
A horse colt ; a mare colt 
It would illy accord. 
When did you come in town ? 
A lengthy sermon, etc. 
Why don't you strike like I do ? 



Proper. 
,Esq. 



I think he must have died, etc. 



— ■ in a bad state or condition. 

Will you put these things in order 

for me ? 
What do people think of it ? 
Talents of the highest order. 

— there is no doubt of that. 

We may hope for the assistance of 

God. 
A colt ; a filly. 
It would ill accord. 
When did you come into town ? 
A long sermon, etc. 
— as I do, or like as I do ? 



PUNCTUATION. 



treats of the points and 



984. Punctuation 
tnarks used in writing. 

085. The use of these points is to mark the divisions of a 
sentence j in order to show the meaning more clearly, and to serve 
as a guide in the pauses and inflections required in reading. 

986. The principal marks used for this purpose are the follow- 
ing: The comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the 
period (.), the interrogation point (?), the exclamation 
point (!), the dash (— ), the parenthesis ( ), the- brackets 

[]• 

987» With respect to the length of the pauses indicated by these 
marks, no very definite rule can be given ; the same point in 
certain kinds of composition, and in certain positions, requiring some- 
times a longer and sometimes a shorter pause. 

088. As a general rule, the comma marks the shortest pause ; the 
semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, a pause 



SYNTAA — PUNCTUATION. 271 

double that of the semicolon ; and the period, a pause still longer 
than that of the colon. 

The Comma. 

989. The comma is generally used in those parts of a sentence 
in which a short pause is required, and to mark a connection next in 
closeness to that which is unbroken. 

Special Rules. 

990. Rule 1. — In a short, simple sentence, the comma is 
not used ; as, " Hope is necessary in every condition of life." 

991. Rule 2. — When the logical subject of a verb is rendered 
long by the addition of several adjuncts, or other qualifying words, 
to the grammatical subject, a comma is usually inserted before the 
verb ; as, "A steady and undivided attention to one subject, is a sure 
mark of a superior mind." 

992. Rule 3. — In complex and compound sentences, the 
clauses or members are usually separated by commas ; as, " Crafty 
men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use 
them." But when the clauses are short, or closely connected, the 
comma is not used ; as, " Revelation tells us hoic we may attain hap- 
piness." 

993. Rule 4. — Two words of the same class, connected by a 
conjunction expressed, do not admit a comma between them ; as, 
" The earth and the moon are planets." — " He is a wise and prudent 
man."—" He catches and arrests the hours." — " He acts prudently and 
vigorously" But when the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is 
inserted after each ; as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim." But, 
of two adjectives, the last should not be separated by a comma from 
its noun ; as, " He is a plain, honest man." Nor can two adjectives 
be separated from each other by a comma when used together as a 
compound adjective ; as, " A bright-red color." 

994:. Rule 5.— More than two words of the same class, con- 
nected by conjunctions expressed or understood, have a comma after 
each ; as, " Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." But when 
the words connected are adjectives, the last should not be separated 
from its noun by a comma after it ; as, " David was a wise, brave, and 
prudent king." 

995. Rule 6.— Words used in pairs take a comma after each 
pair; as, "Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation 
and ruin, are the consequences of civil war." 



272 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

996. Rule 7. — Nouns in apposition are separated by a 
comma, when the latter noun has several words or adjuncts connected 
with it ; as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." But a single noun 
in apposition with another is not separated by a comma ; as, ** Paul 
the apostle/ 5 

997. Rule 8.— The nominative independent 9 and the 
nominative absolute (768), with the words dependent on them, are 
separated by commas from the rest of the sentence ; as, " My son, 
hear the instruction of thy father."— " I am, sir, your obedient ser- 
vant." — " The time of youth being precious, we should devote it to 
improvement." — " To confess the truth, I was in fault." 

998. Rule 9.— Comparative and antithetical clauses are 

separated by a comma ; thus, " As the hart panteth after the water- 
brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." — " Though deep, yet clear ; 
though gentle, yet not dull." But when the comparison is short, and 
the connection intimate, the comma is not used ; as, " Wisdom is 
better than rubies." 

999. Rule 10. — The adverbs nay, so, hence , again, first, 

secondly, etc., when considered important, and particularly at the 
beginning of a sentence, should be separated from the context by a 
comma : as, " Nay, but we will serve the Lord." So also, as and 
thus, introducing an example or quotation, as in the preceding 
sentence. 

1000. Rule 11. — A relative with its clause, explanatory of 
its antecedent, is usually separated from the rest of a sentence ; as, 
" He, who disregards the good opinion of the world, must be utterly 
abandoned," or, " He must be utterly abandoned, who disregards," 
etc. But when the relative, with its clause, is restrictive (267, 2), and 
the connection so close that it can not be separated, the comma is not 
used ; as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." 

1001. Rule 12. — That, used as a conjunction, and preceded by 
another clause, usually has a comma before it ; as, " Be virtuous, that 
you may be happy." But when the clause introduced by that is the 
subject or the object of the verb in the preceding clause, the comma 
is not inserted ; as, " It is well that he should know it." — " I said that 
ye are gods." 

1002. Rule 13. — When a verb is understood, a comma must 
be inserted ; as, " Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a ready 
man ; and writing, an exact man." 



SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION. 273 

1003. Rule 14. — Words repeated are separated by a comma ; 
as, " Holy, holy, lioly, is the Lord God Almighty/' — " No, no, no, it 
can not be." 

1004. Rule 15. — Inverted sentences, by throwing two or 
more words out of their regular connection, often require a comma ; 
as, " To Grod, all things are possible/' Not inverted, it would be, 
" All things are possible to Gfod."— " His delight was, to assist the 
distressed. In the natural order, " To assist the distressed was his 
delight." 

10 OS. Rule 16. — A short expression , in the matter of a 
quotation, is separated by commas ; as, " Plutarch calls lying, the 
vice of slaves." Also the verbs say, reply, and the like, with their 
dependent words introducing a quotation or remark, are usually 
separated by commas ; as, " The book of nature, said he, is open 
before thee." — " I say unto all, watch." 

1006. Rule 17. — Adjectives, participles, adverbs, in- 
finitives, etc., when separated from the word on which they depend, 
or, when accompanied by several adjuncts, commonly require commas 
to be inserted ; as, " His talents, formed for great enterprises, could 
not fail of rendering him conspicuous." — " To conclude, I can only 
say this." — " We must not, however, neglect our duty." 

The Semicolon. 

1007 • The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence 
which are less closely connected than those which are separated 
by the comma, and more closely than those which are separated by 
the colon. 

General Mule. 

1008. The parts of a sentence separated by a semicolon, should 
contain in themselves a complete and independent proposi- 
tion, but still having a connection with the other parts. 

Special Mules. 

1009. Rule 1. — When the first division of a sentence contains a 
complete proposition, but is followed by a clause added as an infe- 
rence or reason, or to give some explanation, the part thus added 
must be separated by a semicolon ; as, " Perform your duty faithfully ; 
for this will procure you the blessing of heaven." — " The orator 
makes the truth plain to his hearers ; he awakens them ; he excites 



274 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

them to action ; lie shows them their impending danger." — u Be at 
peace with many ; nevertheless, have but few counselors." 

1010. Rule 2. — When several short sentences, complete 
in themselves, hut having a slight connection in idea, follow in suc- 
cession, they should be separated by a semicolon ; as, " The epic poem 
recites the exploits of a hero ; tragedy represents a disastrous event ; 
comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind ; pastoral poetry 
describes rural life ; and elegy displays the tender emotions of the 
heart." 

1011, Rule 3. — When a sentence consists of several mem- 
bers, and these members are complex, and subdivided by commas, 
the larger divisions of the sentence are sometimes separated by a 
semicolon ; as, " As the desire of approbation, when it works according 
to reason, improves the amiable part of our species in everything that 
is laudable ; so nothing is more destructive to them, when it is go- 
verned by vanity and folly." 

1012, Rule 4. — When a general term has several others, as par- 
ticulars, in apposition under it, the general term is separated from 
the particulars by a semicolon, and the particulars, from each other 
by commas ; as, "Adjective pronouns are divided into four classes; 
possessive, distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite." But if the 
word namely be introduced, the separation is made by a comma only. 

The Colon. 

1013, The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more 
parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon, 
but not so independent as to require a period. 

Special Mules, 

1014. Rule 1. — A colon is used when a sentence is complete 
in itself, in both sense and construction, but is followed by some 
additional remark or illustration, depending upon it in sense, though 
not in Syntax ; as, " The brute arrives at a point of perfection that he 
can never pass : in a few years he has all the endowments of which 
he is capable." — " Study to acquire a habit of thinking : nothing is 
more important." 

1015. Rule 2. — When several short sentences follow in suc- 
cession, each containing a complete sense in itself, but all having a 
common dependence on some subsequent clause ; these sen- 
tences are separated from the subsequent clause by a colon, and from 
each other by a semicolon ; as, " That Nature is unlimited in her 



SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION. 275 

operations ; that she has inexhaustible resources in reserve ; that 
knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future genera- 
tions will continue to make discoveries : these are among the asser- 
tions of philosophers." 

1016. Rule 3. — A colon (sometimes a semicolon) may be used 
when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced ; as, 
" Always remember this ancient maxim : ' Know thyself.' " — " The 
Scriptures give us an animated representation of the Deity in these 
words: ' God is love/ " 

1017* Rule 4. — The insertion or omission of a conjunction 
before the concluding member of a sentence frequently determines 
the use of the colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not 
expressed before the concluding member, which would 
otherwise be separated by a semicolon, the colon is used ; but when the 
conjunction is expressed, the semicolon; as, "Apply yourself to 
learning : it will redound to your honor." — " Apply yourself to learn- 
ing ; for it will redound to your honor." 

The Period. 

1018. The period separates sentences which are complete 
in sense, and not connected in either meaning or grammatical con- 
struction ; thus, " Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity toward 
all men." 

1019. But when short sentences are connected in mean- 
ing, but not in construction, they are separated by a semicolon 
(1010). 

1020. Long sentences, if complete, even though grammat- 
ically connected by conjunctions, often insert a period (563); thus, 
" He who lifts up himself to the notice and observation of the world, 
is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For he draws upon 
himself a thousand eyes that will narrowly inspect him in every part." 

1021. A period must be used at the end of all boohs, chap- 
ters, sections, etc. ; also, after all abbreviations / as, A. D., 
M. A., Art. II., Obs. 3., J. Smith, etc.— Appendix, XII. 

The Interrogation Point. 

1022. A question is regarded as a complete sentence, and 
the interrogation point as equal to the period. 

102 3. The note of interrogation is always put at the end of 
a direct question ; as, " What is truth V But the indirect ques- 
tion does not require the interrogation point ; as, " Pilate inquired 
what is truth." 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — Printers are generally the best punctuators, as they follow 
a uniform system. It is therefore for the most part best, in prepar- 
ing matter for the press, to leave this matter to them, except where 
the meaning intended may not be clearly perceived without the 
punctuation. 

Other Characters Used in "Writing. 

1024:. The Dash( — ) is used where the sentence breaks off 
abruptly / also, to denote a significant pause — an unexpected turn 
in the sentiment — or that the first clause is common to all the rest, as 
in this definition. 

1025. The note of exclamation (!) is used after expres- 
sions of sudden emotion of any kind ; also, in invocations or ad- 
dresses, as, " Eternity ! thou pleasing, dreadful thought." Oh has 
the mark immediately after it, or after the next word ; as, " Oh ! that 
he would come." But when O is used, the note is placed after some 
intervening words ; as, " O my friends !" 

1 026. The Parenthesis ( ) includes a clause inserted in the 
body of a sentence, in order to some useful or necessary informa- 
tion or remark, but which may be omitted without injuring the con- 
struction of the sentence ; as, " Know ye not, brethren (for I speak to 
them that know the law), how that the law hath dominion over a 
man as long as he liveth ?" In reading, the parenthetic part is distin- 
guished by a lower or altered tone of voice. When the clause is 
short, and accords with the general tenor of the sentence, commas 
are now generally used instead of parentheses ; as, 

" Thou sluggish power, if power thou be, 
All destitute of energy." 

The use of parentheses should be avoided as much as pos- 
sible. 

1027. ^Brackets [ ] are properly used to enclose a word or 
phrase interpolated for the purpose of explanation, or correction, 
or to supply a deficiency in a sentence quoted or regarded as such, and 
which did not belong to the original composition ; thus, " It is said, 
the wisest men [and, it might be added, the best too] are not exempt 
from human frailty." 

1028. The Apostrophe ( * ) is used when a letter or letters 
are omitted ; as e'er for ever, tho 9 for though ; or to mark the pos- 
sessive case. 

1029. Quotation marks (" ") are put at the beginning and end 



SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION. 277 

of a passage quoted from an author in his own words, or to mark a 
passage regarded as a quotation. 

1030. The Hyphen ( - ) is used to connect compound 
words which are not permanent compounds, as lap-dog : also at the 
end of a line, to show that the rest of the word not completed is at 
the beginning of the next line. 

1031. The Section ( § ) is used to divide a discourse or chapter 
into portions. 

1032. The Paragraph (T[) was formerly used to denote the 
beginning of a new paragraph. 

1033. The Brace (~^) is used to connect words which have 
one common term, or three lines in poetry having the same 
rhyme, called a triplet. 

1034:. The Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are 

omitted ; as, K—g for King. Several asterisks are sometimes used, 
for the same purpose ; as, K* *g. 

1035. The Caret (a) is used to show that some word or letter 
is either omitted or interlined. It is used only in manuscript. 

1036. The Index ( ffigf° ) is used to point out any thing remark- 
able. 

1037. The vowel marks are: the Diaeresis ( " ), on the 
last of two concurrent vowels, showing that they are not to be pro- 
nounced as a diphthong ; the Acute accent ( ' ) ; the Grave ( ^ ) ; 
the Long sound ( " ) ; the Short sound ( v ). 

1038. The marks of reference are : the Asterisk ( * ) ; the 
Obelisk or Dagger ( f ) ; the Double Dagger {%); the Pa- 
rallels ( I ). Sometimes, also, the § and % Also, small letters or 
figures, which refer to notes at the foot of the page. 



FIGURES. 

1039. A Figure, in grammar, is some deviation 
from the ordinary form, or construction, or application of 
words in a sentence, for the purpose of greater precision, 
variety, or elegance of expression. 

1040. There are three kinds of Figures, viz. : of Etymology, 
of Syntax, and of Rhetoric. The first refers to the form of words, 



278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

the second to their construction, and the last to their applied' 
tion. 

Figures of Etymology. 

104=1. A Figure of Etymology is a departure from the usual 
or simple form of words, merely. 

104:2. Of these, the most important are eight, viz. : A-phmr'-e-sis, 
Pros' -thesis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, Dircer'-e-sis, Syn-mr'-e- 
sis, and Tme'-sis. 

1. Aphceresis is the elision of a syllable from the beginning 

of a word ; as, 'gainst, f gan, 'bove, 'neath, for against, began, above, 
beneath. 

2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a syllable to a word ; as, 
adown, agoing, etc., for down, going, etc. 

3. Syncope is the elision of a letter or syllable, usually a short 
one, from the middle of a word ; as, medicine, sp'rit, e'en, for medi- 
cine, spirit, even. 

4. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of a 
word ; as, tho' for though, th' for the. 

5. JParagoge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a 
word ; as, deary for dear. 

6. Dimresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into dif- 
ferent syllables, usually marked thus ( " ) on the second vowel ; as, 
cooperate, aerial. 

7. Synceresis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either 
orthography or pronunciation ; as, dost, seest, for doest, seest, or loved 
learned, pronounced in one syllable instead of two, lov-ed, learn-ed. 

8. Tmesis is the separating of the parts of a compound word by 
an intervening term ; as, " What time soever." — " On which side 
soever." — " To us ward." 

Figures of Syntax. 

1043. A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the usual con- 
struction of words in a sentence, used for the sake of greater beauty 
or force. 

1044. Of these the most important are : El-lip' -sis, Ple'-o-nasm, 
SyUep'-sis, E-nal'-la-ge, Ey-per'-ba-ton. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words necessary to the 
full construction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the idea 



SYNTAX — FIGURES. 279 

intended (977). Such words are said to be understood ; as, " The 
men, women, and children," for " The men, the women, and the 
children." 

2. Pleonasm is the using of more tvords than are ne- 
cessary to the full construction of a sentence, to give greater force 
or emphasis to the expession ; as, " The boy, oh! where was he!" 

3. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personification, by 
which we conceive the sense of words otherwise than the words im- 
port, and construe them according to the sense conceived. Thus, of 
the sun, we say, " He shines " — of a ship, " She sails " (130). 

4. Enatlage is the use of one part of speecli for an- 
other, or of one modification of a word for another ; as, an adjective 
for an adverb, thus, " They fall successive, and successive rise," for suc- 
cessively; the use of we and you in the plural, to denote an individual, 
etc. (245) ; the use of one case for another ; as, " than whom " for than 
who (966). 

5. Myperbaton is the transposition of words and clauses in 
a sentence, to give variety, force, and vivacity, to the composition ; as, 
" Now come we to the last." — " A man he was to all the country dear." 
— " He wanders earth around" 

Figures of Rhetoric. 

10&5. A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary 
application of words in speech, to give animation, strength, and 
beauty, to the composition. These figures are sometimes called 
tropes. 

1046. Of these, the most important are the following, viz. : — 

Personification, Hyperbole, Climax, 

Simile, Irony, Exclamation, 

Metaphor, Metonymy, Interrogation, 

Allegory, Synecdoche, Paralepsis, 

Vision, Antithesis, Apostrophe. 

1. Personification or prosopopoeia, is that figure of speech 
by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as, " The 
sea saw it and fled." 

2. A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears 
to another ; as, " He shall be like a tree planted by the Hvers of 
water" 



280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. A metaphor is a simile without the sign (like, or as, etc.,) 
of comparison ; as, " He shall be a tree planted by" etc. 

4. An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so con- 
nected in sense as to form a kind of parable or fable. Thus, the 
people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : " Thou, 
hast brought a vine out of Egypt" etc. — Ps. lxxx. 8-17. Of this style 
are iEsop's Fables, Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress," etc. 

5. Vision or imagery, is a figure by which the speaker repre- 
sents past events or the objects of his imagination, as actually 
present to his senses ; as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, 
and enters Italy."—" The combat thickens : on, ye brave !" 

6. An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater 
or less, better or worse, than they really are. Thus, David says 
of Saul and Jonathan, " They were swifter than eagles ; they were 
stronger than lions" 

6. Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of 
what we say ; as, when Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal, ' Cry 
aloud ; for he is a god, etc. 

7. Metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the 
effect, or the effect for the cause / as, when we say, " He reads 
Milton," we mean Milton's works. " Gray hairs should be respected " 
— that is, old age. 

9. Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the 
tvhole for a part, a definite number for an indefinite, etc.; as, the 
waves for the sea, the head for the person, and ten thousand for any 
great number. This figure is nearly allied to metonymy. 

10. Antithesis, or contrast, is a figure by which different or con- 
trary objects are contrasted, to make them show one another to advan- 
tage. Thus, Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked with the 
courage of the righteous, when he says, " The wicked flee when no man 
pursueth ; but the righteous are as bold as a lion." 

11. Climax, or amplification, is the hightening of all the cir- 
cumstances of an object or action which we wish to place in a strong 
light ; as, " Who shall separate us from the love of Christ ? Shall 
tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, 
or sword ? Nay," etc. See, also, Rom. viii. 38, 39. 

12. Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some 
strong emotion of the mind; as, " Oh! the depth of the riches, 
both of the wisdom and knowledge of God !" 



POETIC LICENSES. 281 

13. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion 
of our mind, and enliven our discourse by proposing questions ; 

thus, "Hath the Lord said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he 
spoken it f and shall he not make it good ?" 

14. I*aralepsis, or omission, is a figure by which the speaker 
pretends to conceal what he is really declaring, and strongly 
enforcing ; as, " Horatius was once a very promising young gentle- 
men, but in process of time he became so addicted to gaming, not to 
mention his drunkenness and debauchery, that he soon exhausted his 
estate, and ruined his constitution." 

15. Apostrophe is a turning-off from the subject, to address 
some other person or thing ; " Death is swallowed up in victory. 
Heath, where is thy sting ?" 

104:7 • Besides the deviations from the usual form and construc- 
tion of words, noted under the figures of Etymology and Syntax, 
there are still others, which can not be classed under proper heads, 
and which, from being used mostly in poetic composition, are com- 
monly called — 

Poetic Licenses. 

104:8. These are such as the following :— 

1. In poetry 9 words, idioms, and phrases are often used, which 
would be inadmissible in prose ; as — s 

" A man he was to all the country dear, 

And passing rich with forty pounds a year." 
" By fountain clear, or spangled starlight sheen" 
" Shall I receive by gift, what of my own, 

When and where likes me best, I can command." 
" Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey." 
" The whiles, the vaulted shrine around, 

Seraphic wires were heard to sound." 
" On the first friendly bank he throws him down." 
" I'll seek the solitude he sought, 

And stretch me where he lay." 
" Not Hector's self should want an equal foe." 

2. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable in poetry 
than in prose ; as — 

" Suffice, to-night, these orders to obey." 
Time is our tedious song should here have ending." 



282 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 

" For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise V 
" 'T is Fancy, in her fiery car, 

Transports me to the thickest war." 
" Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys." 
" Bliss is the same in subject as in king, 

In who obtain defence, or who defend." 

3. In poetry, adjectives are often elegantly connected with nouns 
which they do not strictly qualify ; as — 

" The ploughman homeward plods his weary way" 

" The tenants of the warbling shade." 

" And drowsy tinklings lull the distant fo Ids" 

4. The rules of grammar are often violated by the poets. A 
noun and its pronoun are often used in reference to the same verb ; as — 

" It ceased, the melancholy sound" 

" My tanks they are furnished with bees." 

5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb and to, 

the sign of the infinitive ; as — 

" To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell ; 
To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes." 

6. A common poetic license consists in employing or and nor 9 
instead of either and neither ; as— 

— . « ^ n a first 

Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea." 
" Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest." 

7. Intransitive verbs are often made transitive 9 and adjec- 
tives are used like abstract nouns ; as — 

" The lightnings flash a larger curve." 

" Still in harmonious intercourse, they lived 

The rural day, and talked the flowing heart." 
" Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, . 

By chance or search, was offered to his view, 

He scanned with curious eye." 

8. Grreefc, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are allowable in 
poetry, though inadmissible in prose ; as— 

" He knew to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." 
" Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold." 



SYNTAX — POETIC LICENSES. 283 

" There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call, 

Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame." 
" Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed." 

" Never, since created man, 

Met such embodied force." 
104:9 • Such are a few of the licenses allowed to poets, but denied 
to prose writers ; and, among other purposes which they obviously 
serve, they enhance the pleasure of reading poetic composition, by 
increasing the boundary of separation set up, especially in our lan- 
guage, between it and common prose. 

EXEECISES. 

Point out, name, and define, the figures of Etymology in the follow- 
ing phrases and sentences : — 

His courage 'gan fail. — Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy breast. — 
'Twas mine, 'tis his. — Vain tamp'ring has but fostered his disease. — 
Enchained he lay, a monster. — What way soe'er he turned, it met 
him. — Th' aerial pencil forms the scene anew. 

Point out, name, and define, the figures of Syntax in the following 
sentences : — 

The law I gave to nature him forbids. — So little mercy shows who 
needs so much.^-My head is filled with dew, and my locks with the 
drops of the night. — Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow. — 
He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. 

Point out, name, and define, the figures of Rhetoric in the following 
sentences : — 

As thy day is, so shall thy strength be. — Without discipline, the 
favorite, like a neglected forester, runs wild. — Thy name is as oint- 
ment poured forth. — The Lord God is a sun and shield. — I saw their 
chief, tall as a rock of ice, his spear the blasted fir. — At which the 
universal host sent up a shout that tore hell's concave. 



PART XV. 

PROSODY 



1050. Prosody treats of Elocution and Versifi- 
cation. 

ELOCUTION. 

1051. Elocution is correct pronunciation, 
and the proper management of the voice in 

reading or speaking. 

In order to read and speak with grace and effect, attention must be 
paid to correct enunciation, the proper pitch of the voice, the 
accent and quantity of the syllables, and to emphasis, pauses, 
and tones* 

1052. — 1. The enunciation should be distinct and clear upon 
every letter and syllable, giving to each element its proper sound. 

1053. — 2. In the pitch and management of the voice, it should 
be neither too high nor too low ; the utterance neither too quick nor 
too slow, and neither too varied nor too monotonous. 

1054. — 3. Accent is the laying of a particular stress of voice on 
a certain syllable in a word, as the syllable mr- in mr' tue, mr' tuous. 

1053. — 4. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time which 
is required to pronounce it. A long syllable, in quantity, is equal to 
two short ones. Thus, pine, tube, note, require to be sounded as long 
again as pin, tub, not. In English versification, an accented sylla- 
hle is long, an unaccented one is short. 

1056.— 5. Emphasis means that greater stress of the voice 
which we lay on some particular word or words, in order to mark 
their superior importance in the sentence, and thereby the better to 
convey the idea intended by the writer or speaker. 

1057. —6. Pauses, or rests, are cessations of the voice, in order 
to enable the reader or speaker to take breath, and to give the hearer 
a distinct perception of the meaning, not only of each sentence, but 
of the whole discourse (985). For poetic pauses, see (1115, 1118). 



PKOSODY — VERSIFICATION. 285 

105 S. — 7. Tones consist in the modulation of the voice, and the 
notes, or variations of sound, which we employ in speaking, to express 
the different sentiments, emotions, or feelings, intended. 

*** A full consideration of these topics, in a work of this kind, 
would be as impracticable as it would be out of place, since it would 
require a volume for that purpose. They are fully treated of and 
exemplified in works on elocution, — a subject which is, or should be, 
taken up as a separate branch of study. 



VERSIFICATION. 



1059. Versification is the art of arranging 
words into poetical lines, or verses. 

1060. A Verse, or Poetical Line, consists of a certain num- 
ber of accented and unaccented syllables, arranged according to fixed 
rules. This regular alternation of long and short syllables constitutes 
HJiyihm. 

1061. A Couplet, or Distich, consists of two lines or verses 
taken together, whether rhyming with each other or not. A Triplet 
consists of three lines rhyming together. 

1062. A Stanza is a combination of several verses or lines, 
varying in number according to the poet's fancy, and constituting a 
regular division of a poem or song. This is often incorrectly called 
a verse. 

1063. Mhyme is the similarity of sound in the last syllables of 
two or more lines arranged in a certain order. Poetry, the verses 
of which have this similarity, is sometimes called Rhyme. 

1064:. Blank Verse is the name given to that species of poetry 
which is without rhyme. 

Feet. 

1065. Feet are the smaller portions into which a line is divided 
— each of which consists of two or more syllables, combined according 
to accent* 

1066. In English versification, an accented syllable is ac- 
counted long ; an unaccented syllable, short. In the following 



286 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



examples, a straight line, or macron ( - ), over a syllable shows that 
it is accented, and a curved line, or breve ( ~ ), that it is unaccented. 

1097. Monosyllables, which, when alone, are regarded as 
without accent, often receive it when placed in a poetical line and 
are long or short, according as they are with or without the accent 
Thus — 

" To rouse him with the spur and rein, 
With more than rapture's ray." ? 

[In the ancient languages, each syllable has a certain quantity 
long or short, independent of accent, for which there are certain defi- 
nite rules. In this they differ widely from the English.] 

1068. Meter, or Measure, is the arrangement of a certain 
number of poetical feet in a verse or line. 

1. When a line has the proper metre, or number of feet, it is called 
Acatalectic. 

2. When it is deficient, it is called Catalectic. 

3. When it has a redundant syllable, it is called Hypercata- 
lectic, or Hypermeter. 

1069. A line consisting of one foot is called monometer ; of 
two, dimeter; of three, trimeter; of four , tetrameter ; of five, 
pentameter; of six, hexameter; of seven, heptameter. 

1070. Scanning is dividing a verse into the feet of which it is 
composed. 

1071* All feet in poetry are reducible to eight kinds ; four of 
two syllables, and four of three, as follows :— 

I. FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES. 

1. An Iambus w — . a s, defend. 

2. A Trochee — w ; as, noble. 

3. A Spondee ; as, vain man. 

4. A Pyrrhic w ^ ; a s, on a (hill). 

II. FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES. 

1. An Anapaest w w — ; a s, intercede. 

2. A Dactyl — w w ; as, Durable. 

3. An Amphibrach w — w ; as, abundant. 

4. A Tribrach w w ^ ; a s, (tol) erable. 

1072. Of all these, the principal are the Iambus, Trochee 
Anapmst, and Dactyl. The other four feet are used chiefly in 
connection with these, in order to give variety to the measure. 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 287 

1073. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last 
unaccented ; as, nolle, music. 

1074:* An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the 
last accented ; as, adore, defend. 

1075. A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, 
" vain man" 

1076. A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented; 
as, " dn a (Mil). 

107 7 » A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two last 
unaccented ; as, wrtuous. 

107 8. An Amphibrach has the first and the last syllable unac- 
cented, and the middle one accented ; as, contentment. 

1079. An Anapaest has the the two first syllables unaccented, 
and the last accented ; as, Intercede. 

1080. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, num|£r- 
Shle. 

1081. A verse is usually named from the name of the foot which 
predominates in it ; thus, Iambic, Trochaic, etc. 

I. Iambic Verse. 

1082. An iambic verse consists of iambuses, and consequently 
has the accent on the second, fourth, sixth, etc., syllables. It 
has different metres, as follows : 

1. 'Tis sweet. 
2. With thee | we rise. 
3. In pla | ces far | or near. 
4. How sleep | the brave | who sink | to rest. 
5. For me | your trib | uta | ry stores | combine. 
6. His heart | is sad, [ his hope | is gone, | his light | is passed. 
7. When all | thy mer | cies, O | my God, | my ris | ing soul | surveys. 
1083* Each of these kinds of iambic verse may have an ad" 
ditional short syllable, and so be called iambic hypermeter ; 
thus : — 

1. Disdain | ing. 

2. Upon | amoun | tain. 

3. When on | her Mak | er's bo | som. 

4. But hail, | thou god | dess, sage | and ho | ly. 

5. What si en | der youth | bedewed | with liq | uid o | dor. 

6. Whose front | cau brave | the storm | but will | not rear | the flow | er. 

7. To scatjter o'er|liis path|of fame[bright hues | of gem- 1 like showjers. 



288 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

1084* It often happens that a trochee, or sometimes a spon- 
dee, is admitted in the place of the first foot, which gives a 
pleasing variety to the verse ; as — 

Planets | and suns | rim law | less through | the sky. 
Pierce, hard | y, proud | in con | scious free | dom bold. 

1085. Iambic Monometer, Dimeter, and Trimeter. 

—Of these meters there is no regular form, but they are sometimes 
introduced into stanzas. 

1086. Iambic Tetrameter.— This verse may extend through 
a considerable number of stanzas. 

1087. Iambic Pentameter.— Iambic verse of five feet is 
called heroic verse. Such is Milton's " Paradise Lost/' etc. By 
the admission of trochees, anapaests, etc., in certain places, it is capable 
of many varieties. 

1088. Iambic Hexameter.— A verse of six feet is called 
Alexandrine. 

1089. The Elegiac stanza consists of four pentameter lines 
rhyming alternately ; as— 

The cur | few tolls | the knell | of part | ing day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

1090. The Spenserian stanza (which takes its name from the 
poet Spenser) consists of eight pentameter or heroic verses, followed 
by one hexameter, or Alexandrine verse. This is the stanza in which 
the " Fairie Queene " is written. 

1091. Iambic Heptameter. — Iambic verses of seven feet, 
formerly written in one line, are now commonly divided into two, 
one of four, and one of three feet ; as — 

When all | thy mer [ cies, O | my God, 

My ris | ing soul | surveys, 
Transport | ed with the view, | I'm lost 

In won | der, love, | and praise. 

1092. This is called common meter. Stanzas having three 
feet in the first, second, and fourth lines, and four in the third, are 
called short meter ; and those consisting of four lines, each con- 
taining four feet, are called long meter. 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 289 

Trochaic Verse. 

1093. Trochaic verse consists of Trochees, and consequently 
has the accent on the first, third, fifth, etc., syllables. It has 
different meters, as follows : — 

1. Staying. 

2. Rich the f treasure. 

3. Go where | glory | waits thee. 

4. Maids are | sitting | by the | fountain. 

5. Oh ! the | strife of | this di | vided | being. 

6. On a | mountain, | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow. 

1094. Each of these may take an additional long syllable, and so 
become hypercatalctic, or hypermeter ; thus — 

1. Tumult | cease. 
2. In the | days of | old. 

3. Restless | mortals | toil for | nought. 

4. Idle | after | dinner, j in his | chair. 

5. Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit ! | bird thou ] never | wert. 
6. Night and | morning ] were at | meeting, | over | Water | loo. 
109 o. In the last two forms, each line is usually divided into 
two ; thus — 

5. Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit ! 

Bird thou | never | wert. 

6. Night and | morning | were at | meeting, 

Over | Water | loo. 

1096. Trochaic verse, with ah additional long syllable at the 
end, is the same as Iambic verse wanting a short syllable at 
the beginning. 

Anapwstic Verse. 

1097. Anapmstic verse consists chiefly of Anapmsts, and, when 
pure, has the accent on every third syllable. It has different me- 
ters, as follows : — 

1. But too far. 
2. But his cour | age 'gan fail. 
3. ye woods ! | spread your branch | es apace. 
To your deep | est recess | es I fly ; 
I would hide | with the beasts | of the chase, 
I would van | ish from ev | ery eye. 
4. May I gov | era my pas | sions with ab | solute sway, 
And grow wis J er and bet | ter as life | wears away. 



290 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

1093. Qi these, the first is ambiguous ; for by placing an 
accent on the first syllable, it becomes a trochaic manometer hyper- 
meter. 

1099. The second sometimes admits an additional short syllable 
at the end ; as — 

On the road | by the val | ley, 

As he wan | dered lament | ing ; 
To the green | of the for | est, 

He returned | him repent | ing. 

1100. The third is a very pleasing measure, and is much used 
in both solemn and cheerful subjects ; but it seldom takes an addi- 
tional syllable. 

1101. The fourth, or tetrameter , admits an additional 
syllable, which often has a pleasing effect ; as — 

On the warm ] cheek of youth | smiles and ros | es are blend | ing. 

Dactylic Verse. 

1102. Dactylic verse consists chiefly of Dactyls, and has the 
following varieties : — 

1. Fearfully. 
2. Free from sa | tiety, 
Care and anx j iety, 
Charms in va | riety 
Fall to his | share. 
3. Wearing a | way in his | youthfulness 
11 OS. Each of these sometimes takes an additional long 
syllable, and so becomes hypermeter ; as — 
1. Over a | mead, 
Pricking his | steed. 
2. Covered with | snow was the | vale, 
Sad was the J shriek of the | gale. 
3. Time it has | passed, and the | lady is | pale. 

1104. By combining these kinds, examples of tetrameter, pen- , 
tameler^ and even hexameter are obtained ; but they are sel- 
dom used. 

1105. A. dactylic verse seldom ends with a dactyl; it more 
commonly adds a long syllable, sometimes a trochee, as in the 
following lines : — 

Brightest and | best of the ] sons of the | morning, 
Dawn on our | darkness and J lend us thine | aid. 



PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 291 

1106. The following is an example of dactyls and spondees 

alternately : — 

Green in the jwlldwood] proudly the | tall tree|iooks on the|brown plain. 
The following is an example of pure dactylic hexameter : — 

Over the | valley, with [speed like the | wind, all the | steeds were a | gal- 
loping. 

1107. Considering the beauty of this kind of verse, and its 
peculiar adaptedness to gay and cheerful movements, it is surprising 
that it has not been more cultivated. 

Mixed Verses. 

1108. Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet. Iam- 
bic verse, for example, sometimes admits other feet into the line, 
particularly at the beginning, as has been already noticed. The fol- 
lowing are examples of iambic lines with different feet intro- 
duced : — 

Trochee. Prophet | of plagues, | forev | er bod | ing ill ! 
Dactyl. Murmuring, | and with | him fled | the shades | of night. 
Anapcest. Before | all tern | pies the up | right heart | and pure. 
Pyrrhic. Brought death | into | the world | and all | our wo. 
Tribrach. And thun | ders down | impet | uoiis to | the plain. 

1109. In iambic verse, the initial short syllable is sometimes 
omitted ; and the verse becomes trochaic with an additional long 
syllable. 

1110. In trochaic verse, the initial long syllable is sometimes 
omitted ; and the line becomes iambic with an additional short 
syllable. 

1111. If the two short syllables are omitted at the beginning of 
of an anapmstic line, it becomes dactylic with a long syllable 
added. So — 

1112. If the initial long syllable is omitted in a dactylic verse, 
it becomes anapmstic with two short syllables added. 

111S. A pleasing movement is produced by intermingling 
iambuses and anapcests, as in the following lines : — 
" I come, | I come ! | ye have called | me long ; 
I come | o'er the moiin | tains with light | and song! 
Ye may trace | my steps | o'er the wak | ening earth, 
By the winds | which tell | of the vi | olet's birth, 
By the prim | rose stars | of the shad | owv grass, 
By the green | leaves op | ening as | I pass." 



292 ENGLISH GRAIIAK. 

1114:, In odes and lyric pieces, verses of different hinds and 
different meters or measures are often intermingled, after the 
manner of the ancient choral odes, with a pleasing effect. " Alexan- 
der's Feast," Collins's " Ode to the Passions," etc., are examples. 

Poetic Pauses. 

Ilia, Besides the usual pauses required to mark the sense in 
reading, and which may be called sentential pauses, indicated "by the 
punctuation, there are other pauses in poetic composition required by, 
and necessary to give proper effect to, the movement of the line. 

1116. These are chiefly the Final pause and the Cvesural 
pause. 

1117 • The final pause is generally required at the end of 
every line of poetry, even where there is no sentential pause ; but it 
should not be too distinctly marked, as it consists merely in a brief 
suspension of the voice without any change in the tone or pitch. 
When a sentential pause occurs at the end of the line, as it does very 
often, it takes the place of, and supersedes the final pause. 

1118. The ccesural pause is a suspension of the voice some- 
where in the line itself, for which no rule can be given, but which 
will always be manifest when poetry is well read. It does not occur 
in very short lines. In lines of some length, it generally occurs near 
the middle ; sometimes, however, nearer the beginning, and some- 
times nearer the end ; often in the middle of a foot, but never in the 
middle of a word. Sometimes, besides this, a sort of demicazsural 
pause is required, to give full effect to the expression. The following 
lines furnish examples of the ccesural pause in different parts of the 
line, and also of the demicceswral pause. The former is marked 
( " ), and the latter ( ' ) :— 

" The steer and lion" at one crib shall meet, 

And harmless serpents" lick the pilgrim's feet." 
" The crested basilisk" and speckled snake." 
" And on the sightless eyeballs" pour the day." 

" But not to me returns 

Day," or the sweet approach of even or morn." 
" No sooner had the Almighty ceased," but all 
The multitude of angels" with a shout, 
Loud" as from numbers without numbers," sweet 
As from blest voices" uttering joy." 



PROSODY — COMPOSITION. 293 

*' Warms' in the sun/' refreshes' in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees ; 
Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent, 
Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent.' ' 
These pauses depend in part upon emphasis. 

EXERCISES. 

As exercises in scanning, lines or stanzas from any poetical work 

may be selected. 



COMPOSITION. 



1119. Composition is the art of expressing our 
thoughts in spoken or written language. It is of two 
kinds, Prose and Poetry. 

1120. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts are 
expressed in the natural order, in common and ordinary language. 

1121. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and 
sentiments are expressed in measured verse, in loftier and more in- 
verted style, by words and figures selected and arranged so as to 
please the ear, and captivate the fancy. 

1122. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or 
indirect. 

1123. Direct discourse is that in which a writer or speaker 
delivers his own sentiments. 

1124. Indirect or ohliqtie discourse is that in which a 
person relates, in his own language, what another speaker or writer 



1125. In the first, when the speaker refers to himself, he 

uses the first person I or ive. When he refers to the person or per- 
sons addressed, he uses the second person thou, yon, etc. 

1126. In the second or indirect discourse, whether the 
speaker is reported as referring to himself, or to those whom he ad- 
dresses, the third person is used in either case ; as, he, she, they y 
etc. An example will best Ulustrate the distinction. Thus :— 



294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1127. DIRECT DISCOURSE. 

Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars-hill and said : " Ye men of 
Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious ; for as I 
passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this in- 
scription : ' To the Unknown God.' Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly 
worship, Him declare I unto you." 

1128. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 

The same, reported in indirect or oblique discourse, would run 
thus :— 

Then Paul, standing on Mars-hill, told the men of Athens, he per- 
ceived that in all things they were too superstitious ; for as Tie passed 
by and beheld their devotions, he found an altar with this inscription : 
" To the Unknown God." Whom, therefore, they ignorantly wor- 
shipped, Him declared he unto them. 

1129. When the reporter, the speaker reported, and the person 
or persons addressed, are different in gender or number, there is no 
danger of ambiguity. But when in these respects they are the same, 
ambiguity is unavoidable, from the same pronoun being used in the 
progress of the discourse, to designate different persons. Hence, to 
prevent mistakes, it is often necessary to insert the name or designa- 
tion of the person meant by the pronoun. An example will best 
illustrate this also : — 

" Then the son went to his father and said to him [direct], '. I have 
sinned against heaven and in thy sight.' " 

" Then the son went to his father and said to him {indirect], that 
he (the son) had sinned against heaven and in his (his father's) sight." 

It will at once be perceived that, without the words enclosed in 
parenthesis, for explanation, it would be impossible to tell whether by 
the word he, the father or the son was intended ; so also with respect 
to the word his. Hence, when by the indirect discourse, ambiguity is 
unavoidable, it is generally better to have recourse to the direct form, 
and quote the writer's or speaker's own words, as in (1127). 

1130. The principal kinds of prose composition are — narra- 
tive, letters, memoirs, history, biography, essays, phi- 
losophy, sermons, novels, speeches, and orations. 

1131. The principal kinds of poetical composition are — the 
epigram, the epitaph, the sonnet, pastoral poetry, didac- 
tic poetry, satires, descriptive poetry, elegy, lyric poetry, 
dramatic poetry, and epic poetry. 



PROSODY — COMPOSITION. 295 



The Use of Grammar in Composition. 

1132. To speak and write with propriety, in every species of 
composition, is an attainment of no small importance ; and to lead to 
this attainment is the business of grammar. The grammar of a lan- 
guage is just a compilation of rules and directions, agreeably to which 
that language is spoken or written. These rules, however, are not 
the invention of the grammarian, nor dependent on his authority for 
their validity. As it is the business of the philosopher, not to make a 
law of Nature, nor to dictate how her operations should be performed, 
but, by close observation, to ascertain tvliat those laws are, 
and to state them for the information of others ; so the business of 
the grammarian is, not to make the laws of language, for language 
is before grammar, but to observe and note those principles, 
and forms, and modes of speech, by which men are accustomed to 
express their sentiments, and to arrange the results of his observation 
into a system of rules for the guidance and assistance of others. It is 
obvious, then, that the ultimate principle or test to which the rules 
laid down by the grammarian must conform, is the best usage. 

1133. Hence, when the inquiry is whether a particular word or 
form of speech is right, is good English, the only question to be 
decided is, " Is it according to the best usage f" On this 
subject, however, it has been made a question, " What is the best 
usage?" The following sentiments, abridged from Dr. Crombie's 
work on English Etymology and Syntax, seem to be just, and com- 
prehensive of this whole subject : — 

The Laiv of Language. 

1134. The usage which gives law to language, in order to 
establish its authority, or to entitle its suffrage to our assent, must be, 
in the first place, reputable ; by which is meant, not the usage of 
the court, nor great men, nor merely scientific men ; but of those 
whose works are esteemed oy the public, and who may therefore be 
denominated reputable authors. 

1135. In the second place, this usage must be national. It 
must not be confined to this or that province or district. " Those/' to 
use Campbell's apposite similitude, " who deviate from the beaten road 
may be incomparably more numerous than those who travel in it ; yet, 
into whatever number of by-paths the former may be divided, there 



296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

may not be found in any one of these tracks so many as travel in the 
king's highway." 

1136. Thirdly, This usage must he present. It is difficult to 
fix, with any precision, what usage may in all cases be deemed 
present. It is, perhaps, in this respect, different with different com- 
positions. In general, words and forms of speech which have been 
long disused should not be employed. And so, on the contrary, the 
usage of the present day is not implicitly to be adopted. Mankind 
are fond of novelty, and there is a fashion in language as there is 
in dress. Whim, vanity, and affectation, delight in creating new 
words, and using new forms of phraseology. Now, to adopt every 
new-fangled upstart at its birth, would argue, not taste, nor judgment, 
but childish fondness for singularity and novelty. But should any 
of these maintain its ground, and receive the sanction of reputable 
usage, it must in that case be received. 

1137. The usage, then, which gives law to language, and which 
is generally denominated good usage, must be reputable, na- 
tional, and present. It happens, however, that " good usage " is 
not always uniform in her decisions, and that in unquestionable 
authorities are found far different modes of expression. In such 
cases, the following canons, proposed by Dr. Campbell, will be of 
service in enabling to decide to which phraseology the preference 
ought to be given. They are given nearly in the words of the 
author : — 

1138. Cakok 1. — When the usage is divided as 
to any particular words or phrases, and when one of the 
expressions is susceptible of a different meaning, while the 
other admits of only one signification, the expression 
which is strictly univoeal should be preferred. 

1139. Castost 2. — In doubtful cases, analogy 
should be regarded. 

1140. Cako^t 3. — When expressions are, in other, re- 
spects, equal, that should be preferred which is most 
agreeable to the ear. 

1141. Canoe" 4. — When none of the preceding rules 
takes place, regard should be had to simplicity. 

114:2. But though no expression or mode of speech can be justi- 



PROSODY — COMPOSITION. 297 

fled which is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does not 
follow — that every phraseology sanctioned by usage should be re- 
tained. In many such cases, custom may properly be checked by 
criticism, whose province it is, not only to remonstrate against the 
introduction of any words or phraseology which may be either un- 
neccessary or contrary to analogy, but also to extrude whatever is 
reprehensible, though in general use. It is by this, her prerogative, 
that languages are gradually refined and improved. In exercising 
this authority, she can not pretend to degrade instantly any phrase- 
ology which she may deem objectionable ; but she may, by repeated 
remonstrances, gradually effect its dismission. Her decisions in such 
cases may be properly regulated by the following rules, laid down 
by the same author : — 

114:3, Rule 1. — All words and phrases particularly harsh 9 
and not absolutely necessary, should be dismissed. 

114:4:. Rule. — When the etymology plainly points to a 
different signification from what the word bears, propriety and 
simplicity require its dismission. 

1145. Rule 3. — When words become obsolete, or are never 
used but in particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they 
give the style an air of vulgarity and cant when this general disuse 
renders them obscure. 

1146. Rule 4. — All words and phrases which, analyzed gram- 
matically, include a solecism, should be dismissed. 

1147. Rule 5. — All expressions which, according to the estab- 
lished rules of language, either have no meaning, or involve a 
contradiction, or, according to a fair construction of the words, 
convey a meaning different from the intention of the speaker, 
should be dismissed. 

1148. In order to write any language with grammatical purity, 
three things are required : — 

1. That the words be all of that language. The violation of 
this rule is called a barbarism. 

2. That they be construed and arranged according to the rides 
of syntax in that language. A violation of this rule is called a 
solecism. 

3. That they be employed in that sense which usage has annexed 
to them. A violation of this rule is called impropriety. 



298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1149. A barbarism is an offense against lexicography • 

a solecism is an offense against the rules of syntax ; and an 
impropriety is an offense against lexicography, by mistaking 
the meaning of words and phrases. 

Mints for Correct and Flegant Writing. 

1150. Correct and elegant writing depends partly 
upon the choice of words, and partly upon the form, 
and structure of sentences. 

I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things 
to be observed axe purity, propriety, and. precision. 

Purity. 

1151. Purity consists in the rejection of snch words and 
phrases as are not strictly English, nor in accordance with the prac- 
tice of good writers or speakers. 

1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expression ; as, "Fraicheur " 
— "politesse " — " He repents him of his folly.'' 

2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words ; as, albeit, afore- 
time, inspectator, judgmatical. 

Propriety. 

115 2. Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best 
adapted to express our meaning. 

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions; as, "To get into a 
scrape." 

2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical ; as, 
" This morn." — " The celestial orbs." 

3. Avoid technical terms, unless you write for those who perfectly 
understand them. 

4. Do not use the same word too frequently , or in different 
senses ; as, " The king communicated his intention to the minister, 
who disclosed it to the secretary, who made it known to the public." — 
" His own reason might have suggested better reasons. 

5. Supply words that are wanting 9 and necessary to com- 
plete the sense. Thus, instead of " This action increased his former 
services," say, " This action increased the merit of his former serv- 
ices." 



PROSODY — COMPOSITION. 299 

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as, "His 
memory shall be lost on tiie earth." 

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions ; as, " I 
have an opaque idea of what you mean." 

Precision. 

1153. Precision rejects superfluous words. 

1. Avoid tautology ; as, " His faithfulness and fidelity were un- 
equaled." 

2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous. 
Thus, instead of " Though his actions and intentions were good, he 
lost his character" say, " He lost his reputation." 

II. With respect to sentences? clearness, unity, strength, 
and a proper application of the figures of speech, are neces- 
sary. 

Clearness. 

1154. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 

1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phra- 
ses, must be placed as near as possible to the words which they 
affect, and in such situation as the sense requires. 

2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 

3. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for 
which they stand. 

Unity. 

1155. Unity retains one predominant object throughout a sen- 
tence, or a series of clauses. 

1. Separate into distinct sentences such clauses as have no 
immediate connection. 

2. The principal tvords must, throughout a sentence, be the 
most prominent, and only one leading subject should be presented. 

3. Avoid the introduction of parentheses, except when a lively 
remark may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense of 
what goes before. 

Strength. 

1156. Strength gives to every word and every member its due 
importance. 

1. Reject all superfluous words and members. This is 
also one of the elements of precision (1153). In the following sen- 



300 ENGLISH GRAMMA R. 

tence, the word printed in italics should be omitted : " Being conscious 
of his own integrity, he disdained submission." 

2. Place the most important words in the situation in which 
they will make the strongest impression. v 

3. A tveaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and, 
when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be 
the concluding one* 

4. When two tilings are compared or contrasted with each other 
where either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some re- 
semblance in the language and construction should be preserved. 

5. A sentence should not be concluded tvith sl preposition, 
or any inconsiderable word or phrase, unless it is emphatic. 

1157. Figures of Speech. 

1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never 
except when it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said. 

2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear 
natural, not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued 
too far. 

3. Literal and figurative language should never be blended 
together. 

4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be 
preserved throughout, and different figures never jumbled together. 

Transposition, 

1158. As a preparatory step to the important business of compo- 
sition, the pupil, after he has acquired a knowledge of grammar, may 
be exercised with great advantage upon the transposition of 
words and members in sentences, so as to try in how many different 
ways the same thought or sentiment may be expressed. This will 
give him a command of language, and prove, at the same time, a 
source of considerable mental cultivation. It is often necessary to 
give an entirely new turn to an expression, before a sentence can be 
rendered elegant, or even perspicuous. 

1159. There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of ex- 
pressing a thought may be varied : — 

1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an 
active verb ; as, " The sun dissolves the snow/'—" The snow is dis- 
solved by the sun." 



PROSODY — COMPOSITION. 301 

2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing the 
order in which the words stand in a sentence ; as, " Competence 
may be acquired by industry." — " By industry, competence may be 
acquired." 

3. By changing an affirmative into a negative, or a negative 
into an affirmative, of an entirely contrary character; as, "Virtue 
promotes happiness." — " Virtue does not promote misery." 

4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words em- 
ployed to express any sentiment ; as, " Diligence and application are 
the best means of improvement." — " Nothing promotes improvement 
like diligence and application." 

EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION. 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase 
of luxury. I am willing to remit all that is past, provided it can be 
done with safety. A good man has respect to the feelings of others 
in all that he says or does. Bravely to contend for a good cause is 
noble ; silently to suffer for it is heroic. 

EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase 
of luxury. In proportion to the increase of luxury, the Roman state 
evidently declined. The Roman state, in proportion to the increase 
of luxury, evidently declined. 

EXERCISES ON VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is better to 
be moved by false glory than not to be moved at all. I shall attend 
the meeting, if I can do it with convenience. He who improves in 
modesty as he improves in knowledge, has an undoubted claim to 
greatness of mind. The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness 
and affability. 

EXAMPLE OF VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. His sister's 
conduct was more praiseworthy than his. His sister's mode of acting 
was entitled to more praise than his. His conduct was less entitled 
to praise than that of his sister, etc. 

1160. Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation 
for composition, consists in giving the pupil, especially if very young, 
a list of words, with directions to form from them such sentences 
as shall contain these words. 



302 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXEKCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Construct a number of such sentences as shall each contain one or 
more of the following words : — Contentment, behavior, consideration, 
elevation, distance, application, respect, duty, intercourse, evidence, 
social, bereavement, nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate, consternation, 
temperance, luxury, disarm, expatiate, etc. 

Letters? 

1161, One of the simplest and yet most useful species of compo- 
sition is letter writing. This species of composition may be prac- 
ticed either by way of real correspondence between those 
pursuing the same studies, or it may consist of letters written to 
imaginary correspondents. The following are a few topics adapted 
to composition of this latter kind : — 

Letter 1. — Write to a friend at a distance. State to him the 
object of your writing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing, and 
how you like them. Mention how yourself and friends are. Give an 
account of some of the alterations which have been lately made, or 
are now making, in your neighborhood ; and conclude by expressing 
your desire either to see him or hear from him soon. 

Letter 2. — Write to a companion an account of a long walk 
which you lately had. Tell him whether you were alone or in com- 
pany. Mention what particular thing struck you by the way ; and 
enumerate all the incidents of any moment that occurred. 

Letter 3. — Write to a friend who is supposed to have sent you a 
present of books, and thank him for such kindness. Tell him the use 
you intend to make of them ; and inform him to what particular 
books you are most partial. Conclude by giving some account of 
those you have lately been reading, and how you like them. 

Letter 4. — Write to a friend supposed to be going abroad. De- 
scribe to him how you would feel if called to leave your friends and 
your native country. Express your regret at losing him, but state 
your hope that you will not forget each other when seas roll between 
you. Kequest him to write to you frequently ; and advise him to be 
careful about his health and of the society he keeps. 

Letter 5* — Write to a friend at a distance, and give him an 
account of a sail which you lately had in a steamboat. Mention what 
places you visited, and state the objects that most delighted you. 
Tell him how long you were away, what sort of weather you had, 
and what were your feelings upon returning home. 



PEOSODY — COMPOSITION. 303 

Letter 6. — Write to a friend an account of the church, you were 
at last Sabbath. Tell who preached. Mention the psalms or hymns 
that were sung, and the portions of Scripture that were read. State 
the text from which the minister preached ; and give your opinion of 
the different sermons. 

1162. These have been given as mere specimens of the suhjects 
upon which the student who has acquired a knowledge of grammar 
may be required to write. The prudent and skillful teacher will be 
enabled to multiply and vary them at pleasure to any extent. 

Reproduction, 

1163. Another method of exercising the minds of pupils in com- 
position consists in reading some simple story or narrative, 
till such time as they are acquainted with the facts, and then 
directing them to express these in their oivn "words. A still 
further, and perhaps even a simpler method, is, to take advantage of 
a young person's having given some account of what he has either 
seen, heard, or read, and desire him to commit to writing what 
he has stated orally* 

Impromptu Composition. 

1164. For the purpose of securing readiness and facility in the 
expression of thought, and cultivating vigor of mind, impromptu 
exercises in composition are earnestly recommended. The pupils 
are all seated with slate (or paper) and pencil in hand, when the 
teacher writes upon the blackboard or announces some simple theme. 
At a given signal all the pupils begin to write. The exercises may 
occupy from three to ten minutes. At a signal from the teacher all 
cease writing. No emendations are afterward to be made by any 
pupil, before the reading. Each pupil, or so many as it is deemed 
expedient, may now be called upon to read, and the pupils first, and 
afterward the teacher, criticize in a friendly spirit. The results at 
first will not be very promising, but practice will develop skill on the 
part of the pupils, and create interest in the exercise. 

Themes. 

116l>. The next step in composition is the writing of regular 
themes. The subject, however, should always be such as is not 
above the capacity of the person who is desired to compose, for, 
if it is, the whole benefit resulting from the exercise will be nullified. 

A theme is a regular, set subject, upon which a person is required 
to write ; or the dissertation that has been written upon such a sub- 



304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ject. Some of the simplest subjects for themes are those drawn from 
natural history or natural philosophy. At all events, they 
should not, in the first instance, "be drawn from subjects of an abtruse 
and abstract character. 

1166. The following may serve as specimens in this depart- 
ment : — 

Theme 1. — The horse* — 1. Describe what sort of an animal the 
horse is. 2. Tell some of the different kinds. 3. Mention the 
various ways in which this noble animal is serviceable to man. 4. 
State what would be the consequence of wanting him. 5. Mention 
the treatment to which he is entitled, and the cruelty of ill-using such 
a creature. 

Write themes upon the cow, the dog, the sheep, poultry ; 
and follow the same plan as that followed in writing upon the horse. 

Theme 2. — The sun. — 1. Begin by stating what the sun is. 

2. Tell all you know of its size, figure, and distance from our earth. 

3. Mention the effect it has upon the earth, and the benefits we 
derive from it. 4. State what would be the consequence if the sun 
were extinguished ; and what our feelings ought to be toward the 
Supreme Being for such an object. 

Write themes upon the moon, the stars, fire, air, and wa- 
ter ; and in all, follow the same plan. 

Theme 3. — Day and night.— 1. Tell what you mean by day 
and night. 2. State whether they are always alike long, and what is 
the advantage arising from their length being different at different 
seasons. 3. Mention the different purposes to which they are adapted. 

4. Say of what the continued succession of day and night is fitted to 
remind us, and how this should lead us to act. 

Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon the 
mountains, rivers, and the tides of the sea; and follow a 
similar plan in the whole. 

Theme 4. — On composition. — 1. Explain what you mean by 
this term. 2. Point out the necessity of studying this art, by show- 
ing how much it contributes to add to the value of one's knowledge. 
3. Mention what is necessary to fit one for composing well. 4. State 
the means by which skill in this art is to be obtained. 

Theme 5. — On company. — 1. Explain what you mean by com- 
pany. 2. Show how natural it is for man to seek society. 3. State 
the danger of keeping either too much company, or of keeping bad 
company. 4. Point out the advantages of good company. 



PROSODY — COMPO SITIOK. 



305 



Write themes upon conversation, study, improvement of 
time, choice of boohs, memory , and the different organs 

of sense, etc., and in all, follow the same general method as you 
did in writing on company. 

Theme 6. — Narratives* — Describe the place or scene of the 
actions related, the persons concerned in, the time, posture of affairs, 
state of mind, motives, ends, etc., of the actors ; results. 

Write theme upon the discovery of America, the French 
war, the Revolutionary war, the battle of Bunker Hill, 
the French Mevolntion* 

Theme 7. — Dissertations on remarkable events in sacred or 
profane history. — The place, the origin, the circumstances, results, 
moral influence, etc. 

Following this or a similar arrangement of parts, write composi- 
tions on : the creation ; death of Abel ; the deluge ; the world after the 
flood ; the tower of Babel ; the Israelites in Egypt ; their deliverance 
from it ; the giving of the laio from Sinai ; the advent of the Messiah 
— his death — his resurrection ; destruction of Jerusalem ; the siege of 
Troy ; rise and fall of the Boman Empire; the Crusades; the burning 
of Moscow ; the battle of Waterloo ; the death of Bonaparte etc. 

Theme 8. — Biographies, — Give an account of some of the most 
distinguished characters in different ages of the world, — warriors, 
statesmen, artists, philosophers, poets, orators, philanthropists, di- 
vines,— mentioning what is known respecting their country, parent- 
age, education, character, principles, exploits, influence on society for 
good or evil, death. 

1167 • The following list of themes is selected from Parker's 
Exercises in Composition : — 

1. On Attention, 12. On Charity, 23, 

2. " Adversity, 13. " Clemency, 24 

Compassion, 25, 

Conscience, 26 

Constancy, 27, 

Carelessness, 28 

Curiosity, 29, 

Cheerfulness, 30, 

9. " Beauty, 20. " Contentment, 31 

10. " Biography, 21. " Diligence, 32 

11. " Bad Scholar, 22. " Duplicity, 33, 



o. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 



Adversity, 13. 

Ardor of Mind, 14. 
Art, [cal, 15. 

Attachment, lo- 16. 
Anger. 17. 

Air, 18. 

Benevolence, 19. 
Beauty, 20. 

Biography, 21. 
Bad Scholar, 22. 



On Early Eising, 
" Envy, 
" Friendship, 
" Fortune, 
" Fear, 
" Forgiveness, 
" Government, 
" Grammar, 
" Greatness, true, 
" Genius, 
" Habit, 



306 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



84. On Honor, 



85. 

86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
48. 
47. 

76. 
77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
88. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 

106. 
107. 

108. 
109. 
110. 
111. 

112. 
118. 



Happiness, 

Humility, 

Hypocrisy, 

History, 

Hope, 

Indolence, 

Industry, 

Ingraitude, 

Justice, 

Learning, 

Love of Fame, 59, 

Music, 60 

Moon, 61 



On Novelty, 

" Night. 

" Order, 

" Ocean, 

" Pride, 

" Party Spirit. 

" Poverty, 

" Principle, 

" Perseverance, 

" Patriotism, 

" Politeness, 

" Providence, 

" Punctuality, 

" Poetry, 



62. On Piety, 



63. 
64. 
65. 
68. 
67. 



70. 

71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 



" Eeligion, 

" Reading, 

" Sincerity, 

" Summer, 

" Spring, 

" Sun, 

" System, 

" Truth, 

" Time, 

" Talent, 

" Vanity, 

" Virtue, 

" Wealth. 



Knowledge is Power, 91. 

Progress of Error, 92. 

Progress of Truth, 93. 

Government of the Tongue, 94. 

Government of the Temper, 95. 
Government of the Affections, 96. 

Love of Country, 97. 

The Power of Association, 98. 

Immortality of the Soul, 99, 

The Uses of Knowledge, 100. 

The Power of Conscience. 101. 

The Power of Habit, 102. 

Life is Short, 103. 

Miseries of Idleness, 104. 

Never too old to Learn, 105. 



Public Opinion, 
Diligence insures Success, 
Idleness destroys Character, 
Contrivance proves Design, 
Avoid Extremes, 
Visit to an Almshouse, 
Pleasures of Memory, 
Example better than Precept, 
Misery is wed to Guilt, 
Value of Time, 
Virtue, the way to Happiness, 
No one lives for Himself, 
Thou God seest me, 
Trust not Appearances, 
Whatever is, is right. 



" An honest man's the noblest work of God." 

Every man's the architect of his own fortune. 

Man, " Mysterious link in being's endless chain." 

" A little learning is a dangerous thing." 

" How blessings brighten as they take their flight !" 

Advantages derived from the invention of the mariner's compass 
— of the telescope — the steam-engine — the art of printing. 

History of a needle — a cent — a Bible — a beaver hat. 

Description of a voyage to England — coast of Africa — Constanti- 
nople^ — South America — East Indies— China. 



APPENDIX. 



I. SUFFIXES. 

The limits of a grammatical text-book forbid such a full discussion 
of suffices as is usually presented in works on Analysis of Words, 
and it has therefore been deemed best to make a classification on a 
grammatical, rather than a philological basis, leaving to the works 
named above their proper office. The following is taken substantially 
from Morell's " Grammar of the English Language." 

1 . Structure of the Noun. 

English nouns are either— 1. Original Boots; 2. Primary Deriva- 
tives or Stems; 3. Secondary Derivatives or Branches; or, 4 Com- 
pound Words. 

1. The original noun roots consist of the names of all tte 
common objects of nature and human life around us ; as, Sun, 
moon, star, sea, store, father, mother, hope, fear, love, eye, ear, hand, 
cow, sheep, dog, etc. 

These words, and many others of the same'kind, have descended to 
us from the old Saxon stock, from a period lying beyond all historical 
research. Some of them have undergone partial changes in spelling 
and pronunciation, but without at all losing their original character. 

2. English nouns, which come under the title of primary deri- 
vatives, are also, with few exceptions, of Saxon origin. They are, 
for the most part, formed as follows : — 

(1). By modifying the root-vowel (generally of a primitive 

verb) ; as, Bless, Miss ; feed, food ; Und, oond ; set, seat ; knit, knot, 

net ; sing, song ; strike, stroke, etc. 

[Sometimes the noun retains the original verb-form.] 

(2). By modifying the final consonant of the root, or adding 

another consonant ; as, Stick, stitch; dig, ditch; heal, health; drive, 

drift ; believe, oewf, etc. 



308 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



(3). By modifying both vowel and consonant; as, Live, life; 

choose, choice ; lose, loss ; thieve, theft, etc. 

3. Secondary Derivatives are formed by a considerable variety 
of suffixes. 

(a). Saxon derivatives are formed by the following : — 



er, 

ar, 

ard, 

art, 

ster, 



(1). Signifying Agent or Boer. 

as, sing, singer, 

as, lie, liar, 

as, drink, drunkard, 

as, brag, braggart, 

as, pun, punster. 

ess (fern.), as, seam, seamstress. ^ 

(2). Forming Diminutives. 

ling, 
Mn, 
ock, 

let, or et, 



Derived from Verbs. 



as, dear, darling, 
as, lamb, lambkin, 
as, hill, hillock, 
(stream, streamlet, 



as, 



Derived from Nouns. 



( flower, floweret. 

(3). Denoting Abstract Ideas, such as State, Condition, Action, etc. 
ship, as, friend, friendship. 



hood, or head, as, man, manhood, 
as, king, kingdom, 
as, slave, slavery. 



dom, 
ery, 

age, 
ter, 
lock, 

ness, 



Derived from Nouns. 



?i 



as, till, tillage. 

as, laugh, laughter. J. Derived from Verbs. 

as, wed, wedlock. 

as, white, whiteness, £ Derived from Adjectives. 

(4). Denoting Instrument. 

le, as, gird, girdle. \ 

el, as, shove, shovel. I Derived from Verbs. 

et, as, hack, hatchet. ) 

(6). Latin and French Derivatives are formed by the following 

suffixes : — 



APPENDIX — SUFFIXES. 



309 



(1). Signifying an Agent or a Person generally. 
as, auditor, sponsor, From Latin nouns in tor and sor. 
as, executrix, From Latin nouns in trix. 

( From French nouns in aire, ier, 
as, auctioneer, "j eur 

as, legatee, From French nouns in e. 

(2). Forming Diminutives. 

as, poetaster, From Italian nouns in astro. 

(From Latin nouns in cuius, — 



as. 
as 



(From Latin nouns in cuius, — 
j, animalcule, ) a ,-^am ; as, animalculum, par- 
% particle, ( ticula, etc. 



(3). Signifying Abstract Ideas. 



try, 


as, 


commentary, 


y> 


as, 


clemency, 


mce, j 
mce, ) 


as, 


penitence, 


he, 

'on, \ 


as, 


justice, 
/ action, 


Hon,y 
tion,) 


as, 


•] passion, 
(junction, 


ment, 


as, 


ornament, 


our, or, 


as, 


ardo(u)r, 


ty, ity. 


as, 


dignity, 


tude, 


as, 


multitude, 


ture, ) 
cure, ) 


as, 


j tincture, 
( censure, 



( From Latin words in arius ; as, 

\ commentarius. 

c From Latin words in tia ; as, cle- 

j mentia. 

(From Latin words in entia, or 

j antia; as, pmnitentia. 

c From Latin words in itia ; as 

j justitia. 

) From Latin words in io ; as, actio, 
X etc. 

(From Latin words in mentum; 
\ as, ornamentum. 

j From Latin words in or, through 
( the French ; as, ardor, ardeur. 
j From Latin words in tas ; as, 
( dignitas. 

(From Latin words in tudo; as, 

( multitudo. 

) From Latin words in ura ; as, 
) tinctura, etc. 



Remark— Many nouns of the above description are formed directly 



310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

from verbs, by simply changing the accent ; e. g., to affix', an 
affix/ to export', an ex' port; also some monosyllables are both 
nouns and verbs ; as to u$e, a use. 

(e.) Greek Derivatives are formed by the following suffixes : — 

(1.) Signifying Agent or Person. 

an, as, musician, From Greek words in kos {nog), 

ist, as, sophist, " " fates (lotw). 

ite, as, Israelite (patro- > „ „ Ues(cr V A 

nymic), ) v J 

(2.) Forming Diminutives, 
isle, as, asterisk, j From the Greek «^m^ 

( (aCTEpLGKOg). 

(3.) Signifying Abstract Ideas. 
e, y, as, epitome, anarchy, From Greek nouns in e (y). 

ism, sm, as, deism, I From G f eek nouns in ismo8 > or 

( isma (lgjlloc; la/aa). 

ic, ies, as arithmetic, \ From Greek adjectives in ikos, a, 

( on (i/cog, a, ov). 

ma, as, panorama, From Greek nouns in ma {/id). 

sis, as, hypothesis, From Greek nouns in sis {ac). 

4. Compound Nouns of Saxon origin exist largely in the pre- 
sent English language, and new ones are not unfrequently coined, . 
as necessity requires; as, housemaid, railroad, steamboat, cast-iron, 
etc. 

Compound words (except new terms in the sciences) derived from 
the Latin and Greek, are borrowed in their compound from those lan- 
guages. 

2. Structure of the Adjective. 

English adjectives, like English nouns, are either— -1. Original 
Boots; 2. Primary Derivatives ; 3. Secondary Derivatives; or, 4. 
Compound Words. 

1. Many adjectives derived from the Saxon are roots, inasmuch 
as no simpler form of the word can now be traced ; such are good, 
bad, long, short, high, thin, thick, white, black, etc. 






APPENDIX — SUFFIXES. 



311 



2. Primary derivatives are also of Saxon origin. They are 
formed, like the noun-stems, from verbs, nouns, and other adjectives, 
as follows : — 

(1.) By modifying the vowel; as, fill, full; wring, wrong; 
'pride, proud ; string, strong. 

(2.) By modifying or adding a consonant ; as, loathe, loth ; 
four, fourth. 

(3.) By modifying both vowel and consonant; as, wit, wise; 
five, fifth. 

3. English adjectives which come under the title of secondary 
derivatives are formed by a considerable variety of suffixes. 

(a.) Saxon derivatives are formed by the following : — 

(participial form), 
meaning material. 

f( j direction (of points of 

( compass) 

" repetition. 
" full of 
(( j someichat (diminutive), 

( likeness. 
" without. 
(( j resemblance ; or, 

( fitness. 
(( $ possessing ^ 

I the quality of. 
" direction, toward. 

{(adjectival form of 
a noun). 
un (prefix), as, unlovely, " not. 

(b.) Latin derivatives are formed by the following : — 
al, as, equal, From Latin adjectives in alls. 



ed, 


as, 


left-handed, 


en, 


as, 


wooden, 


em, 


as, 


northern, ) 
northerly, f 


erly, 


as, 


fold, 


as, 


fourfold, 


full, 


as, 


truthful, 


ish, 


as, 


j whitish, 
( boyish, 


less, 


as, 


houseless, 


like, 


as, 


lifelike, ) 
lovely, ) 


to. 


as, 


some, 


as, 


winsome, 


ward, 


as, 


homeward, 


y> 


as, 


mighty, 



o/n, as, human, 


tt 


anus. 


ant, as, elegant, 


« 


" ans. 


ent, as, ancient, 


<( 


" ens. 


e (preceded by a consonant), as ) 


« 


i( j nus (preceded 1 
( a consonant) 


marine, ) 




fie, as, terrific, 


<< 


" in ficus. 



312 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ferous, 


as, 


pestiferous, 


ible, 


as, 


visible, ) 
culpable, ) 


able, 


as, 


id, 


as, 


timid, 


il, He, 


as, 


as fertile, 


olent, 


as, 


violent, 


ose, 


as, 


verbose, ) 
copious, f 


ous, 


as, 


pie, 


as, 


triple, ) 
double, f 


ble, 


as, 


tory, sory, 


as, 


migratory, 


tive, 


as, 


captive, 


nous, 


as, 


arduous, 



From Latin adjectives in \^ r and 
(ferus. 



Ulis. 

idus. 

His. 

olens. 

" " osus. 

" " pex. 

(( te j torious, 

( sorious. 
tivus. 
uus. 
que (French), as, oblique, " " quus. 

(e.) The principal Gv^eelc derivatives are formed by — 
ic, as, hieroglyphic, (From Greek adjectives in ikos 

ical, as, arithmetical, ( {lkoq) ; as, apid^riKog. 

S. Structure of the Pronoun. 

Pronouns are either — 1. Original Roots; 2. Derivatives; or, 3, 
Compound words. They are all of Saxon origin, except " one" 
(235). 

1. The pronouns which may be regarded as original roots, are, 
I, me, we, us, thou, ye, you, Tie, she, it, they, who (self), this, that. 

2. The following are derivatives (chiefly by inflection) : — 
Thee is the objective form from thou. 

Him, originally a dative from the masculine he, and the neuter hit, of 
the Saxon he, heo, hit (he, she, it). 

Her, originally a dative and possessive from Saxon heo. 

Them " " " " that 

Whom, " " " " who. 

What, neuter form from who. 

One (235), derived from the French on, an abbreviation of homme. 

Which, a compound form, from who and like (contracted in the Scot- 
tish dialect, whilk). 

My is possessive form from me; thy, thou; our, we ; your, you; their, 
they. 



APPENDIX — SUFFIXES. 313 

The possessive cases (239), mine, thine, etc., are derived from the 
corresponding possessive pronouns (291). 

3. The compound pronouns are those formed by the union 
of the words, self {selves), and ever, with the simple pronouns. See 
list, page 59. 

4. Structure of the Verb. 

English verbs are either — 1. Original Boots ; 2. Primary Deriva- 
tives ; or, 3. Secondary Derivatives. 

1. All the verbs of the " old conjugation" (irregular verbs) 
are of Saxon origin, and all are original roots of the English lan- 
guage. 

A considerable number of these have, in recent times, assumed the 
regular form ; as, climb, laugh, quake, etc. 

2. The primary derivatives are also mostly of Saxon .origin. 
They are formed from original nouns and verbs, as follows : — 

(1.) By modifying the vowel; as, lie, lay ; fly, flee; fall, fell 
(transitive), etc. 

(2.) By modifying the last consonant 9 either as to form or 
pronunciation ; as, advice, advise ; lath, lathe ; grease, grease (greez) ; 
use, use, etc. 

Note. — This class is formed from nouns, an,d some of them are of 
Latin origin. 

(3.) By modifying both vowel and consonant; as, drink, 
drench; glass, glaze ; hound, hunt, etc. 

(4.) By prefixing s or t; as, dun, stun ; melt, smelt; whirl, 
twirl, etc. 

3. Secondary derivatives are formed by a considerable 
variety of suffixes. 

(a.) Saxon derivatives are formed by the following : — 

en, signifying to make ; as, heighten, weahen» 

er, " {frequentative) ; as, climb, clamber. 

ish, (various) ; as, burn, burnish. 

le, " (frequentative) ; as, nip, nibble. 

y, to make; as, soil, sully. 

Remark. — Many nouns and adjectives have been turned into verbs 



314 ENGLISH GRAIIAE. 

without any change; as, dry, to dry ; cool, to cool ; rain, to rain; 

salt, to salt, etc. 

The growing tendency to use the same word for different parts of 
speech should be resisted ; as, to crop a farm ; to ship goods, etc. 
Avoid also such vulgarisms as, to grow corn, and the like. 

(p.) Latin derivatives are formed — 

(1.) From the root of the verb, by rejecting the termination of the 
infinitive; as — 

Discern, from discernere. 

Concur, " concurrere. 

Condemn, " condemnare. 

etc. etc. 

(2.) From the supine of the verb ; as — 
Act, from actum. 

Audit, " auditum. 

Accept, " acceptum. 

(c.) Greek derivatives are formed by the terminations ise arize; 
as, baptize, (from pa-H-rtfa.) This termination has been adopted to 
form many modern English verbs ; as, to Italicize, to Germanize, to 
scrutinize, etc. 

5. Structure of the Adverb. 

English adverbs are either — 1. Original Boots ; 2. Primary Deriva- 
tives ; 3. Secondary Derivatives ; or, 4. Compound words. 

1. The original adverbs consist of a few monosyllables derived 
from the Saxon ; as, now, then, there, here, oft, well, ill, not, so, thus. 
Some of these were, doubtless, formerly oblique cases of Saxon 
pronouns. 

2. "Primary derivatives are formed — 

(1.) From numerals; as, one, once; two, twice, etc.,— originally 
genitive forms of the numerals. 

(2.) From nouns 9 by adding s 9 as need, (must) needs, so, also,, 
mornings, Mondays, etc. 

3.) From other adverbs ; as, there, thither ; here, hither, etc. 

Esmarks. — (1.) A few adverbs are formed from adjectives and 
prepositions, by adding s ; as, unaware, unawares ; beside, besides. 
(2.) Many words, ordinarily prepositions, are joined to verbs 



APPENDIX — SUFFIXES. 315 

without change of form, and used adverbially ; as, to go down, 
come up, etc. 

All the primary derivatives among English adverbs are 
of Saxon origin, and nearly all have been inflections of nouns, pro- 
nouns, or adjectives. 

3. Secondary derivatives are formed as follows i — 
(1.) By suffixes— 
ly, as wise, wisely ; just, justly. 

This is the usual form of the adverb, when derived regularly from 
the corresponding adjective. 
ward or wards ; as, backward, from hack, 



backward, from hack, ) . ... ,. 
sideward, from side, \ e ^^ m 8 direction. 



ways or wise ; as, always, from all ; likewise, from like. 

(2.) By Prefixes— 

a ; as, ashore, adrift, aboard, etc, 

be ; as, behind, betimes, etc. 

4. Compound, adverbs are formed by combining various 
parts of speech, in many instances being abridged forms of adverbial 
phrases or clauses ; as, sometimes, somewhere, forthwith, thereabout, 
straightway, henceforward, headlong, etc. 

[Some are derived in the usual way from compound adjectives ; as, 
ill-naturedly, ill-manneredly, etc.] 

6, Structure of the Preposition. 

Prepositions may be divided, in reference to their structure, into 
three classes: — 1. Original prepositions; 2. Derivatives; 3. Verbal 
prepositions. 

1. The simple prepositions are the following : — at, hy, for, 
from, in, on, of, till, to, through, up, with. 

2. The derived prepositions are for the most part formed 
from verbs, adjectives, fend other parts of speech, by means of 
prefixes; as— 

a ; amid, about, above, along, among, around, against, etc. 

he ; beside, before, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond. 

[Some are formed by combining two simple prepositions together, 
or adding a syllable ; as, into, unto, upon, within, without, through- 
out, etc.] 

3. Verbal prepositions are the imperative and parti~ 



316 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

cipial forms of verbs, used prepositionally , generally in abridged 
form ; as, concerning, during, except, excepting, respecting, touching, 
regarding, save, etc. 

Prepositions of the first and second class are of Saxon origin; 
those of the third class, of Latin* 

7. Structure of the Conjunction. 

Conjunctions are — 1. Simple ; 2. Derivative; or, 3. Compound. 

1. The simple conjunctions are — and, or, but, if, as. 

2. The derivatives are such as — nor, neither, either, than, 
though, whether, even, for, that, since, etc. 

3. Compound conjunctions are made up of two or more 
other words ; as, howbeit, in as far as, nevertheless, moreover, wherefore, 
whereas, etc. 



II. GENDER OF NOUNS. 

In all languages, the distinction of nouns with regard to sex has 
been noted. Every substantive denotes either a male or female, or 
that which is neither the one nor the other. This accident, or char- 
acteristic of nouns, is called their Gender. In English, all words de- 
noting male animals are considered as masculine ; all those denoting 
female animals, feminine ; and those denoting things neither male 
nor female, are termed neuter. " In this distribution," says Crombie, 
" we follow the order of nature ; and our language is, in this respect, 
both simple and animated." Both in Latin and Greek, many words 
denoting things without sex are ranked as masculine or feminine, 
without any regard to their meaning, but simply on account of their 
terminations. In French, all nouns are regarded as either masculine 
or feminine, which is a still greater departure from the order and sim- 
plicity of nature, for which the English language on this point is dis- 
tinguished. 

Some have objected to the designation of three genders ; they think, 
that, as there are but two sexes, it would be more philosophical and 
accurate to say there are only two genders ; and to regard all words 
not belonging to these, as without gender. A little reflection, I think, 
will show that this objection has no just foundation, either in phi- 
losophy or in fact, and that the change it proposes would be no im- 
provement. It has probably arisen from confounding the word gender, 



APPENDIX — GEOEE — PRONOUNS. 3l7 

which properly signifies a kind, class, or species (Lat. genus, French 
genre), with the word sex, and considering them as synonymous. 
This, however, is not the case ; these words do not mean the same 
thing ; and they can not be properly applied in the same way. We 
never say, " the masculine sex, the feminine sex ;" nor " the male 
gender, the female gender." In strict propriety of speech, the word 
sex can be predicated only of animated beings ; the word gender, only 
of the term by which that being is expressed. The being man, has 
sex, not gender ; the word man, has gender, not sex. Though there- 
fore it is very absurd to speak of three sexes, yet it may be very proper 
to speak of three genders ; that is to say, there are three classes (gen- 
ders) of nouns, distinguished from one another by their relations to 
sex. One denotes objects of the male sex, and is called masculine; 
another denotes objects of the female sex, and is called feminine; and 
the third denotes objects neither male nor female, for which a name 
more appropriate than the word neuter need not be desired. 

The term " common gender," applied to such wortls as parent, child, 
friend, etc., does not constitute a distinct class of words, which are 
neither masculine, nor feminine, nor neuter, but is used for conve- 
nience, merely to indicate that such words sometimes denote a male, 
and sometimes a female. Instead of " common," those who prefer it, 
may call such words " masculine or feminine." 



III. THE PRONOUNS, MINE, THINE, etc. 

Some grammarians have given it as their opinion that mine, thine, 
ours, yours, theirs, are not pronouns in the possessive case, but that 
that they are something or other in the nominative or objective case, 
*but never in the possessive. This is surely a very singular notion. 
The anomaly which such an idea would introduce into our language 
would be a curious one. According to this view, these words could 
belong to no part of speech hitherto defined. They are not nouns, for 
they are not the names of any thing — nor adjectives, for they do not 
qualify nouns, nor can ever be joined with them — nor pronouns, for 
they never stand instead of a noun, but always instead of a noun and a 
possessive pronoun together. They have always the sense of the pos- 
sessive case, and are always construed just as the possessive case of a 
noun is, not followed by a noun ; and yet they are never in the posses- 



318 ENGLISH GRAM MAE. 

sive case. These words, standing by themselves, have no fixed or de- 
terminate meaning, and yet in sentences they may have as many differ- 
ent meaning's as there are objects capable of being possessed. Mine, 
for example, may mean my horse, my farm, my hat, my stick, my gun, 
my — any thing you please. And besides this, those of them which 
are singular in form, according to analogy, may have a plural verb ; 
and those of them which are plural may have a singular verb ; thus, 
" John's books are new ; mine are old ;" again, " John's house is built 
of stone ; ours is built of brick." Such is the result to which this no- 
tion leads us ; and if these words are not possessives, but in the 
nominative or objective, as some allege, there certainly are no more 
curious words in the English, nor in any other language. 



IV. "WHAT" AS A RELATIVE. 

" Various opinions have been entertained about the nature of the 
relative what. It is said to be 'a compound relative pronoun, in- 
cluding both the antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to that 
which, or the thing which.' Though this may seem plausible, yet 
we shall find, on examination, that what is nothing more than a 
relative pronoun, and includes nothing else. Compare these two 
sentences : — 

" ' I saw whom I wanted to see ;' 

" ' I saw what I wanted to see/ 

" If what, in the latter, is equivalent to that which, or the thing 
which, ichom, in the former, is equivalent to him whom, or the person 
whom. 6 Who steals my purse steals trash/ is equivalent to Tie who, 
or, the man toho. 

" And, on the same principle, when the relative is omitted, the an- 
tecedent should be represented as equivalent to the relative and the r 
antecedent. Thus, ' I saw the man I wanted to see.' Here, man 
should be represented as equivalent to the man whom. 

"The cause of the error in respect to what, is, that the antecedent 
is never expressed with it. It is not like the word who, which is used 
both when the antecedent is expressed, and when it is omitted. The 
relative that, however, was formerly used in many cases where we 
use what, that is, with the antecedent omitted. A few examples of 
this will help us to ascertain the nature of what : ' We speak that 
we do know.' — English Bible, — ' I am that I am.' — lb. 



APPEXDIX — RELATIVES. 319 

" ' Who liad been seen imagine mote thereby, 
That whylome of Hercules had been told/— Spenser, 
" ' Eschewe that wicked is/ — Gower. 
" ' Is it possible he should not know what he is, and be that he is V 

— Shakes. 
" ' Gather the sequel by that went before/ — lb. 
" In these examples, that is a relative, and is exactly synonymous 
with what. No one would contend that that stands for itself, and its 
antecedent at the same time. The antecedent is omitted because it 
is indefinite, or easily supplied/' — Butler's Grammar, p. 48. 
These remarks appear to me just, and conclusive on this point. 



V. IS "AS" EVER A RELATIVE? 

That the word as should not be considered a relative in any cir- 
cumstances, I think is plain from the following considerations : — 

1. It has neither the meaning nor the use of a relative. Its office 
is simply to connect things compared, and, together with its ante- 
cedent word, to express the idea of equality, likeness, etc., between 
them ; thus, " James is as tall as his father." — " Your hat is such as 
mine." 

2. It does not, like a relative, relate to a noun or pronon before it, 
called the antecedent, nor stand instead of it, or of any other word, 
but is related only to the comparative word, as, such, so, etc., in the 
preceding clause. Thus, in the sentence, "As many as received him," 
the second as relates to the first, and the two convey the idea of 
equality. Again, " Send such books as you have." Here, as refers, 
not to books, but to such. Take away such, and as can not be used. 

3. As can never be used as a substitute for another relative pro- 
noun, nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it. 

4. In sentences in which as is said to be a relative, it evidently has 
the same meaning and use as those in which it is allowed to be only 
a conjunction. Compare the following examples : " As many as five 
men received a reward." — " As many as received him." — " As many 
as they can give." In all these, the phrase " as many as," means, 
and is felt to mean, the same thing — equality of number. There 
surely, then, can be no propriety in calling the second as a conjunc- 



320 ENGLISH GEAIMAR. 

tion in the first sentence, and a relative in the other two. The same 
thing will be evident if we change the antecedent word. Thus, 
" Such books as these are useful." — " Such books as are useful." — 
" Such books as you can give." 

5. If the word as in the preceding sentences and clauses is a rela- 
tive pronoun, for the same reason alleged for this, the word than 
must be a relative in those which follow. The construction is pre- 
cisely the same : " More books than were wanted." — " More books 
than are useful." — " More books than you can give." Now, if, in the 
second of these examples, than is not a relative in the nominative 
case before are, nor in the third a relative in the objective case after 
can give, what need for considering as a relative in the same position, 
in the same construction, and for the same purpose, to denote com- 
parison ? There is the same ellipsis in both, and the same words ne- 
cessary to be supplied, in the one case, as in the other. Thus, "More 
books than [those which] were wanted." — " More books than [those 
which] are useful," etc. So, " Such books as [those which] were 
wanted." — " As many books as [those which] are necessary," etc. 



VI. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

The fourth class of pronouns, sometimes called adjective pronouns, 
and sometimes pronominal adjectives, is usually subdivided into pos- 
sessive, distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite. Of these, the first, 
or possessive, are derived from the personal, and in meaning are 
strictly pronouns, being always the representative or substitute of a 
noun ; but in construction they are adjectives, and are always joined 
with a noun, and hence are appropriately denominated adjective pro- 
nouns, i.e. pronouns used adjectively. By some, they are classed 
with adjectives, and called pronominal adjectives. 

In many grammars the possessives my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, 
their, are set down as the possessive case of the personal pronouns, 
with mine, thine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, making two forms 
of the possessive case : thus, my or mine, thy or thine, etc. Which ' 
of these methods is adopted in teaching or studying grammar, is a 
matter of no practical moment : some grammarians adopt the one, 
and some the other, merely as a matter of taste, without any contro- 
versy on the subject. The classification in the text is preferred as 
being on the whole more simple, because the possessives my, thy, 



APPENDIX — ADJECTIVE PBOKOUHS. 321 

etc., like the adjective, can never stand alone, as the possessive case 
does, but must be supported by a noun following them ; thus, we say, 
"It is the king's;" "It is yours ';" but we can not say, "It is your," 
— the presence of a noun being necessary to the last expression. 

This classification is favored by the analogy of other languages 
both ancient and modern. The possessives, my, thy, etc., for example, 
have precisely the same meaning as the Latin mens, mea, meum ; or 
the French mon, ma; or the German mein (or meiner),-meine, mein; 
or the Anglo-Saxon (which is the mother of the English language), 
mm, mine, min; and they are used in precisely the same way. 
There seems, therefore, to be no good reason for giving them a dif- 
ferent classification. Indeed, the only circumstance which renders it 
possible to regard them as a possessive case in English, is, that, like 
the English adjective, they are indeclinable. Had they been declin- 
able, like the Latin or French, etc., they never could have been used 
as a possessive case. 

The words belonging to the other three divisions have 
been found more difficult to arrange in a satisfactory manner. They 
seem to occupy a sort of middle ground between adjectives and 
pronouns, and are sometimes used as the one, and sometimes 
as the other, without the strict and appropriate character of either. 
They are generally adjectives in construction having a noun ex- 
pressed or understood, which they serve to limit or restrict in various 
ways. On the other hand, with few exceptions, they are so often 
used without a noun, or as its substitute, that they are not improperly 
regarded as pronouns, though in a sense less strict than the oth- 
ers; thus, "Let each esteem others better than himself." — " Among 
men, some are good, others bad, none perfect." " All things come 
alike to all" etc. 

From this equivocal, or rather double, character of these words, they 
have been variously arranged by different authors. Some, among 
whom are Grant, Crombie, Hiley, Sutcliffe, Allen, Cooper, Brown, 
etc., class them with adjectives, and call them " Pronominal 
Adjectives ;" and others, such as Lowth, Priestly, Smart, Murray, 
Lennie, Booth, Churchill, Wright Cobbet, Kirkham, Smith, and 
many others, class them with pronouns, and call them 6i Adjective 
Pronouns •" Since all are agreed about the use of these words, 
it seems in itself a matter of less importance to which of these two 
classes they be attached, or whether they are more appropriately 
called Pronominal Adjectives or Adjective Pronouns. 



322 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



VII. THE VERB. 

Though there is little, if any, difference of judgment among gram- 
marians, as to what a verb is, yet all have probably found it a diffi- 
cult matter to give an accurate and at the same time a brief 
definition of it ; and, accordingly, nearly all grammars differ in 
their definition of this part of speech. The old definition, that " a 
verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer," though unex- 
ceptionable as any, as far as it goes, is yet greatly defective in 
stating nothing respecting the functions or use of this part of 
speech. 

The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or 
declare ; and that of which it affirms is called its subject. This is 
always the office of the verb in the indicative, potential, or subjunc- 
tive. In the use of its other parts, however, namely, the imperative, 
infinitive, and participles, there is properly no affirmation, though the 
action or state expressed by the verb in these parts is clearly seen to 
be the act or state of some person or thing, and which for that reason 
is strictly and properly, though not technically, its subject. Thus, 
" For me to die is gain," is a simple proposition, containing two verbs, 
the first of which, to die, in the infinitive, expresses no affirmation, 
though it evidently, without affirming, attributes dying to a person, 
expressed by the word me. So, when we say, " I see a man walking," 
the word walking expresses an act of the person man, though there is 
properly no affirmation. In like manner, when I say, " Do this," the 
verb do attributes action imperatively to the person addressed, but 
there is no affirmation. £o speak of " affirming imperatively" is cer- 
tainly not very intelligible, though, for want of a better expression, 
we sometimes use it in a loose sense. 

For these reasons, the definition of a verb which says it is " a part 
of speech which asserts or affirms," appears to me to be defective. It 
states one function of this class of words, but excludes, or at least 
does not include, others. It gives, as the distinguishing characteristic 
of a verb, that which does not belong to it in several of its parts and 
uses. It is too restrictive. 

The definition, " A verb is a word used to express an action or state," 
is liable to an objection of an opposite kind : it is too general, and not 
sufficiently distinctive. A verb does, indeed, " express an action or 
state," but there are other words that do so also. Nouns, such as love, 
desire, wish, hope, etc., and most verbal nouns, such as eruption, fiction. 



APPENDIX — DIVISION OF VERBS. 323 

collision, diffusion, progression, etc., express action, and many words, 
both nouns and adjectives, express a state. 

The definition given in the text, though perhaps not unexception- 
able, occupies a middle place between these* extremes ; avoids the in- 
definiteness of the old definition, and is probably less liable to objec- 
tion than most of those which have been given. 



VIII. DIVISION OF VERBS. 

The division of verbs into Transitive and Intransitive, 
which has been so generally adopted by grammarians, was a step in 
the right direction. The former of these terms is specific, and indicates 
a distinction demanded by the meaning and office of those verbs to 
which it is applied. The latter, as generally used, is only a denial 
of the special characteristic of the former, and does not provide for 
those cases in which, while there is no object required, there is 
demanded some attribute or limiter of the subject to complete the 
sense. 

The present division (316, 1) is made upon the distinct characteris- 
tic and office of the verb, and divides all verbs into three classes, 
transitive, intransitive, and attributive, distinguished by a 
clear and definite characteristic derived from their use in the con- 
struction of sentences. To the first belong those which are used 
transitively , whatever be their meaning or form ; to the second, 
those that are used intransitively, and require no other word 
as a complement, whether they denote action or not (319) ; and the 
third, those whose office is to relate an attribute with the 
subject. 

This arrangement and nomenclature still leaves the terms active 
and passive at liberty to be applied exclusively to the two forms 
which all transitive verbs assume, called the active and the passim 



It dispenses with the term neuter altogether, as applied to verbs, 
and leaves it to be appropriated in grammar to the designation of 
gender only. 



324 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



IX. THE PRESENT INDICATIVE PASSIVE, 

AND THE PARTICIPLE IN "ING" IN 

A PASSIVE SENSE 

According to the definition, the passive voice expresses, pas- 
sively, the same thing that the active does actively. For 
example, " Csesar conquered Gaul," and " Gaul was conquered by 
Caesar," express precisely the same idea. This, however, is not 
always done by the regular passive form in the present tense, 
though it generally is done in the other tenses. Thus, it will be felt 
at once that the expression, " Csesar conquers Gaul," and " Gaul is 
conquered by Caesar," do not express the same thing. 

In regard to this matter, there are evidently two classes of 
verbs ; namely, those whose present-passive expresses precisely the 
same thing passively, as the active voice does actively, and those in 
which it does not. 

I. To the first of these classes belong — 

1. All those verbs which, in the regular present passive, imply a 
continuance of the act ; such as, to love, to hate, to regard, to 
esteem, to envy, to please, etc. Thus, " James loves me," and " I am 
loved by James," express precisely the same idea, and consequently 
continuance is implied as much in the passive form as in the active. 
Hence, " is loved " is a true passive, in both form and mean- 
ing. In verbs of this class the progressive form in the active voice 
is seldom used, because it would express the same thing generally as 
the common form; thus, "James loves me," and "James is loving 
me " (though improper), express the same thing. 

2. All verbs when used to express general truths, or what is 
usual or customary from time to time. Thus, " Vinegar dissolves 
pearls " — " Vice produces misery " — " The cobbler mends shoes," etc. 
Passive, " Pearls are dissolved by vinegar " — " Misery is produced by 
vice " — " Shoes are mended by the cobbler," etc. In verbs used in 
this way, the progressive form is not employed. The use of it would 
change the meaning from a general expression to a particular act. 
Thus, "Vice is producing misery/ would immediately direct the 
mind, not to a general truth, but to a particular case. 

But, when these verbs express a particular act, and not a 
general truth, the present active and the present passive express 
different ideas ; thus, " James builds a house," represents an act 



APPENDI X— PASSIVE. 325 

in progress ; but wheD we say, " A house is built by James," the act 
or operation of building is represented as completed. 

3. To this class belong all verbs, which, by the figure called 
vision (1046, 5), are used in the present tense to express 
what is past. Thus, actively, "Caesar leases Gaul, drosses the 
Eubicon, enters Italy." Passively, " Gaul is left by Caesar, the Rubi- 
con is crossed, Italy is entered." In all these, used in this figurative 
way, the present-passive expresses the same thing as the present-ac- 
tive. 

II. The second class of verbs, consists of those (perhaps the 
greater number) whose present-passive implies that the act expressed 
by the active voice has ceased, and the effect or result only remains 
as a finished act, and as such is predicated of the subject. Thus, 
" The house is built." Here it is implied that the act of building is 
completed, and has ceased, and the result, expressed by built, is 
predicated of the house. In all verbs of this kind, the past participle, 
after the verb to be, has reference to the state resulting from the act as 
predicated of the subj ect of the verb, and not to the act itself. Strict- 
ly speaking, then, the past participle with the verb to be is not the 
present tense in the passive voice of verbs thus used ; that is, this form 
does not express passively the doing of the act. These verbs either 
have no present-passive, or it is made by annexing the participle 
in ing, in its passive sense, to the verb to be ; as, " The house is 
building" 

It is supposed hj some that " is built," though in the form of the 
present passive, really is a present-perfect ; because it represents the 
act as completed, and because the perfect-definite, in Latin, is often 
translated by this form into English. Due consideration, however, I 
think, will show that it differs quite as much from the 
present-perfect as it does from the present. To be satisfied of 
this, compare the following expressions : " This garment is torn, 
merely asserts the present state of the garment, with no reference to 
the act but what is implied* But when we say, " This garment has 
been torn," the reference is chiefly to the act as having been done, 
with no reference to the state of the garment but what is implied. 
The one asserts that the garment remains torn, the other does not — 
it may have been mended ; the latter is the regular passive of the 
present-perfect active, the former is not. This will perhaps be more 
clearly perceived by means of another example : " This house has been 
painted, but the paint is loom off." This is good English. But if we 



326 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

say, « This house is painted, but the paint is worn off," we would 
assert a contradiction. 

There is properly no passive form, in English, correspond" 
ing to the progressive form in the active voice, except 
where it is made by the participle ing, in a passive sense ; thus, 
" The house is building " — " The garments are making " — " Wheat is 
selling," etc. An attempt has been made by some grammarians, of 
late, to banish such expressions from the language, though they have 
been used in all time past by the best writers, and to justify and de- 
fend a clumsy solecism, which has been recently introduced chiefly 
through the newspaper press, but which has gained such currency, 
and is becoming so familiar to the ear, that it seems likely to prevail, 
with all its uncouthness and deformity. I refer to such expressions 
as, "The house is being built" — "The letter is being written"— 
" The mine is being worked " — " The news is being telegraphed," 
e^c, eic» 

Respecting this mode of expression, it may be noticed — 

1. That it had no existence in the language till within 
the last fifty years. This, indeed, would not make the ex- 
pression wrong, were it otherwise unexceptionable ; but its recent 
origin shows that it is not, as is pretended, a necessary form. 

2. This form of expression, when analyzed, is found not to express 
what it is intended to express, and would be used only by such as 
are either ignorant of its import, or are careless and loose in their use 
of language. To make this manifest, let it be considered, first, that 
there is no progressive form of the verb to he, and no 
need of it ; hence, there is no such expression in English as is being. 
Of course the expression " is being built," for example, is not a com- 
pound of is being and built, but of is and being built ; that is, of the 
verb to be and the present participle passive. Now, let it be observed, 
that the only verbs in which the present participle passive expresses 
a continued action are those mentioned above as the first class, in 
which the regular passive form expresses a continuance of the action ; 
as, is loved, is desired, etc., and in which, of course, the form in ques- 
tion (is being built) is not required. Nobody would think of saying, 
" He is being loved " — " This result is being desired." 

In all other verbs, then, the present participle passive, like the 
present tense, in the second class of verbs mentioned above, expresses, 
not a continued action, or the continued receiving of an action, but 
that the action had ceased, and the result only exists in a finished 



APPENDIX — PASSIVE. 327 

state. Thus, " Our arrangements being made, we departed." — 
The house being finished, was immediately occupied." — " Our work 
being finished, we may rest," etc. In all such expressions, the present 
participle passive represents the action as now finished,, and existing' 
only in its results (509).' This finished act, then, can not be made 
unfinished, and progressive, by being asserted of a subject, which is all 
the verb to be, as a copula, can express. Hence it is manifest that is 
being built, if it mean any thing, can mean nothing more than is built, 
which is not the idea intended to be expressed. 

3. For the same reason that is being built, etc., is contended for as a 
proper expression, w,e should contend also for " Has been being built." 
— ''Had been being built." — " Shall have been being built." — " Might 
have been being built." — " To be being built.' 5 — " To have been being 
built." — " Being being built." — " Having been being built." When 
all these shall have been introduced, our language will be rich 
indeed !" 

4. The use of this form is justified only by condemning an estab- 
lished usage of the language ; namely, the passive sense in some verbs 
of the participle in ing (459). In reference to this it is flippantly 
asked, " What does the house build f — " What does the letter write," 
etc. — taking for granted, without attempting to prove, that the parti- 
ciple in ing can not have a passive sense in any verb. The following 
are a few examples from writers of the best reputation, which this 
novelty would condemn : " While the ceremony was performing." — 
Tom. Brown. "The court was then holding." — Sir G. McKenzie. 
" And still be doing, never done." — Butler. " The books are selling." 
— Allen's Grammar. " To know nothing of what is transacting in 
the regions above us." — Dr. Blair. " The spot where this new and 
strange tragedy was acting." — E Everett. " The fortress was build- 
ing." — Irving. "An attempt is making in the English parlia- 
ment." — D. Webster. " The church now erecting in the city of New 
York." — _#". A. Beview. * These things were transacting in England." 
— Bancroft. 

5. This new doctrine is in opposition to the almost unanimous judg- 
ment of the most distinguished grammarians, and critics, who have 
considered the subject, and expressed their views concerning it. The 
following are a specimen : " Expressions of this kind are condemned 
by some critics ; but the usage is unquestionably of far better author- 
ity, and (according to my apprehension) in far better taste, than the 
more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in its stead ; 



328 ENGLISH GBAMMARo 

as, ' The books are now being sold.' " — Goold Brown. " As to the 
notion of introducing a new and more complex passive form of conju- 
gation, as, ' The bridge is being built/ ' The bridge was being built,* 
and so forth, it is one of the most absurd and monstrous innovations 
ever thought of." " The work is now being published " is certainly no 
better English than, " The work was being published, has been being 
published, had been being published, shall or will be being published, shall 
or will have been being published," and soon through all the moods and 
tenses. What a language shall we have when our verbs are thus 
conjugated! — Brown's Gr. of Eng. Gr., p. 361. De War observes: 
" The participle in ing is also passive in many instances ; as, ' The 
house is building/ — ' I heard of a plan forming/ " e*tc. — Quoted in Era- 
zee's Grammar, page 49. " It would be an absurdity, indeed, to give up 
the only way we have of denoting the incomplete state of action by 
a passive form " (viz., by the participle in ing in the passive sense). — 
Arnold's English Grammar, p. 46. " The present participle is often 
used passively ; as, the ' The ship is building.' The form of expres- 
sion, is being built, is being committed, etc., is almost universally con- 
demned by grammarians, but it is sometimes met with in respectable 
writers ; it occurs most frequently in newspaper paragraphs, and in 
hasty compositions. See Worcester's Universal and Critical Diction, 
ary." — Weld's Grammar, pp. 118 and 180. " When we say, ' The 
house is building/ the advocates of the new theory ask, " Building 
what ?" We might ask, in turn, when you say, ' The field ploughs 
well/— 'Ploughs what?'— 'Wheat sells well/— ' Sells what?' If 
usage allows us to say, « Wheat sells at a dollar/ in a sense that is 
not active, why may we not say, ' Wheat is selling at a dollar/ in a 
sense that is not active T — Hart's Gram., p. 76. " The prevailing 
practice of the best authors is in favor of the simple form ; as, * The 
house is building/ " — Wells's School Gram., p. 148. "Several other 
expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the new-fangled 
and most uncouth solecism ' is being done,' for the good old English 
idiom ' is doing ' — an absurd periphrasis driving out a pointed and 
pithy turn of the English language." — JV. A. Beview, quoted by Mr. 
Wells, p. 148. " The phrase * is being built/ and others of a similar 
kind, have been for a few years insinuating themselves into our lan- 
guage ; still they are not English." — Harrison's Bise, Progress, and 
Present Structure of the English Language. " This mode of expression 
[the house is being built] is becoming quite common. It is liable, 
however, to several important objections. It appears formal and 
pedantic. It has not, as far as I know, the support of any respectable 



APPENDIX — THE VERB. 329 

grammarian. The easy and natural expression is, ' The house is 
building.' "—Prof. J. W. Gibbs. 

Analysis of the English Verb, 

The analysis of the verb shows that, except for convenience in the 
use of established idioms, there are no more than four radical forms, 
viz : — 

I. J ve 9 t the simple name of the act, which has three uses. 
twrtte* ) 

1. Connected directly with a subject, to affirm a present act, 
or state ; as, I love. 

2. Used indefinitely, to indicate an act or state, in a general 
sense, and depending upon some other word, generally a verb ; as, 
* He desires to write " (infinitive use). 

3. To express a simple command; as, write (them). 

II. The participle in ing 9 denoting the action or state, as con- 
tinuing, or incomplete (397, 456). In the progressive form, as, " I 
am writing ;" the participle is an attributive of the subject. 

III. The past tense, in the regular conjugation, ending in ed 
meaning did), and in the strong conjugation, changing, in some 
instances, the form of the root ; as — Present, write ; past, wrote. 

IV. The fourth form (participial) takes, in regular verbs ed, and 
in irregular verbs sometimes changes the root ; as — Present, love ; 
part., loved. Present, write ; part., written. This form, in transitive 
verbs, is used in both an tictive and a passive sense. 

1. The past participle active is never used except when pre- 
ceded by have, and denotes the completion of the act it expresses, 
referring to the subject of the sentence, while the word have expresses 
its complete possession by that subject ; as, " I have written," i.e., I 
am in possession of (have) written (by having performed the act). It 
is no longer in the future. I have attended to it. It is mine. I have 
written. In this sense, written is a verbal — the object of the verb 
have. 

2. In the passive voice this fourth form (loved, written) refers to 
some person or thing as the receiver to the act ; as, " He was a man 
loved by all." After the verb to be, the past participle passive is simply 
an attribute (see 508,) and till the pupil is thoroughly familiar with 
the nature and idiomatic use of the so-called passive conjugation, 
should always be so analyzed ; thus, " He is loved." " He " is the 
subject; "is loved," is the predicate, of which "is" is the amrmer 



330 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 

(copula), and " loved " the attribute. " Loved " is found in the past 
participle passive, from love, loving, etc., and limits " he" which is 
also its subject. This is, strictly speaking, the only form in the 
passive voice. 
Bee " Analysis and Composition." 



X. FIRST AND SECOND, etc. 

Two or more adjectives connected, without an article intervening, 
belong to the same noun ; as, " A red and white rose " — that is, 
one rose partly red and partly white. Hence, care should be taken to 
see that the qualities expressed by adjectives so used be consistent, or 
such as may be found in one object. Thus, it would be improper to 
say, " An old and young man " — " A round and square hole." — " A 
hot and cold spring " — because a man can not be old and young at the 
same time, nor a hole round and square, nor a spring hot and cold. 
Hence — 

When two or more adjectives express qualities that belong to 
different objects of the same name, and tl^at name expressed 
only with the last, the article should be placed before each adjective. 
Thus, u A red and a white rose," means two roses — one red, and one 
white. In this case, it makes no difference whether the qualities ex- 
pressed by the adjective be consistent or not, since they belong to 
different individuals. Thus, we can say, " A young and an old man " 
— " A round and a square hole " — " A hot and a cold spring " — that is, 
one young man, and another old, etc. It is therefore manifest that 
we can not properly say, " The first and second page " — " The fifth 
and sixth verse " — " The Old and New Testament " — because no page 
can be at once first and second — no verse fifth and sixth — and no 
Testament Old and New. It is equally improper in principle to say, 
" The first and second pages " — " The fifth and sixth verses," because 
two adjectives can not be joined with a word jointly which can not 
be joined with it separately. We can not say, " The first pages" nor 
"the second pages" when we mean but one first and one second. 
Besides, when the ellipsis is supplied, it stands " the first page and 
the second page" and the omission of the first noun can not, on any 
correct principle, affect the number of the second. In many cases, too, 
the use of the jxlural, if it would relieve from the absurdity of uniting 



APPENDIX — TWO EIEST, ETC. 331 

inconsistent qualities in an object, will as certainly lead into ambi- 
guity. For if, to avoid the absurdity of saying "the old and young 
man," we say "the old and young men," the latter expression may 
mean fifty, or a hundred, or any number of men, instead of two— one 
young and one old. Notwithstanding, however, usage has prevailed 
over principle in this as well as in other cases ; and it has become 
quite common to say, " The first and second verses"—" The Old and 
New Testaments "—"The hot and cold springs "— " The indicative 
and subjunctive moods," etc. Where no ambiguity exists in the use 
of such expressions, they must be tolerated. The correct expression, 
however, in all cases in which one is intended, is made by repeating 
the artiele with the adjective, and retaining the noun in the singular; 
thus, " The first and the second verse"—" The Old and the New Tes- 
tament "— " The hot and the cold spring," etc. Or, " The first verse 
and the second," etc. 



XI. TWO FIRST-THREE LAST, etc. 

The expressions, two first 9 three last, and the like, have been 
opposed and ridiculed by some, on the ground, as they allege, that 
there can be only one first, and one last. The objectors evidently 
have not well considered their position ; for — 

1. The terms first and last do not necessarily mean only one. 
First, according to Webster, means, " preceding all others." 
The two first , then, means the two preceding all others, and the three 
last means the three succeeding all others— expressions in which there 
is surely nothing either ridiculous or absurd. 

2. If we say, " The first days of summer " — " The first years of our 
life " — " The last days of Pompeii," which nobody doubts, then, it is 
not true that there can be only one first and one last ; and so the 
ground of objection fails. If we can say. " The last days of summer/ 
why not the two last, or the three last f 

3. The expression objected to is used by the best authorities 
in the language, and has been in use hundreds of years ; and there- 
fore, on the well-known maxim, " Usage is the law of language," if 
it were absurd, it can not be rejected. The following are examples, 
most of them mentioned by Mr. Wells : " The four first acts." — Bp. 
Berkeley. — "The three first monarchies." — Warburion. — "The two 
first persons." — Latham's Eng. Gram. — " My two last letters." — Ad- 
dison. — " The two first lines." — Blair. — " The three first generations." 



332 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

— E. Everett. — " The two first years." — Bancroft. — " The two first 
days." — Irving. — " The two first cantos."— A. H. Everett. — " The four 
first centuries. " — Prescott. 

4. This expression is, in some cases, evidently better than the 
other. It is probably always so, when the number characterized as 
first or last constitutes a majority of the whole. When we say, " the 
first four," there is evidently a reference to a second four, or a last 
four. But if the first four constitute a majority of the whole, there 
remains no second four to justify the reference. Thus, when we say, 
" The first four acts of a play were well performed," there remains 
only one to which any other reference can be made. On the other 
hand, when a whole is divided into equal portions, each containing a 
certain number, as the recurrence of the census every five years — of 
the Olympic games every four — of the sabbath every seven days — of 
four lines in each stanza of a poem, and the like— then the expression 
first four, second four, last four, etc., is preferable, because it implies 
a reference to other portions of equal extent. Also, even when there 
is no such reference, it is often properly used, especially when the 
number is large; as, "The first hundred" — "The last thousand," 
etc. 

5. Several distinguished scholars and grammarians have ex- 
amined this point, and expressed their views respecting it as fol- 
lows : — " It has been doubted whether the cardinal should precede or 
follow the ordinal numeral." — Atterbury says in one of his letters to 
Pope : " Not but that the four first lines are good." — " We conceive 
the expression to be quite correct, though the other form be often 
employed to denote the same conception." — Crombie's English Syntax, 
p. 240. — " Some grammarians object to the use of the numerals two, 
four, etc., before the adjectives fir$t and last. There seems, however, 
to be no good reason for the objection, and the expressions two first, 
two last, etc., are fully sanctioned by good usage." — Wells's Grammar, 
p. 137. — The following is a note on the same page : — " It has been 
fashionable of late to write the first three, and so on, instead of the 
three first. People write in this way to avoid the seeming absurdity 
of implying that more than one thing can be first ; but it is at least 
equally as absurd to talk about the first four, when, as often happens, 
there is no second four." — Arnold. — " Surely, if there can be only 
one last, one first, there can be only ( a last one/ ' a first one/ I need 

| only observe, that usage is decidedly in favor of the former phrase- 
ology." — Grant. 

" The only argument against the use of two first, and in favor of 



APPEKDIX — ABBREVIATIONS. 



333 



substituting first two, so far as I can recollect, is this :— In the nature 
of things, there can be only one first and one last in any series of things- 
But is it true that there can never be more than one first, and one last f 
If it be so, then the adjectives first and last must always be of the 
singular number, and can never agree with nouns in the plural. 
' We are told that the first years of a lawyer's practice are seldom 
very lucrative/ — ' The poet tells us that his first essays were severely 
handled by the critics, but his last efforts have been well received/ 
Examples like these might be produced, without number ; they occur 
everywhere, in all our standard writers. * * * When a numeral 
adjective, and a qualifying epithet, both refer to the same noun, the 
general rule of the English language is to place the numeral first 
then the qualifying epithet, and then the noun. Thus, we say, ' The 
two wise men '- — ' The two tall men/ and not ' The wise two men ' — 
' The tall two men/ And the same rule holds in superlatives. We 
say, ' The two wisest men ' — ' The two tallest men/ and not ' The 
wisest two men ' — ' The tallest two men/ Now if this be admitted to 
be the general rule of the English language, then it follows that 
generally we should say, 'The two first' — 'The two last/ etc., rather 
than 'The first two'— -'The last two/ etc. This, I say, should gene- 
rally be the order of the words. Yet there are some cases in which 
it seems preferable to say, ' The first two '— -' The last two/ etc." — Dr. 
Murdoch. 



XXI -ABBREVIATIONS. 

[The following list contains those most commonly in use :— ] 



A. or Ans. Answer. [Academy. 


A. M. 


In the year of the world. 5 


A. A. S. Fellow of the American 


Amt. 


Amount. 


A.B. or B. A. Bachelor of Arts. 1 


Anon. 


Anonymous. 


Abp. Archbishop. 


Apr. 


April. 


Acct. Account. 


Ark. 


Arkansas. 


A. D. In the year of our Lord. 2 


Atty. 


Attorney. 


Admr. Administrator. 


Aug. 


August. 


Ala. Alabama. 


Bal. 


Balance. 


A. M. or A. M. Master of Arts. 3 


B.C. or 


A.C. Before Christ. 6 


A. M. In the forenoon. 4 


Bp. 


Bishop. 




CaL 


California. 


1 A rtium Baccalaur&ud. 


Capt. 


Captain. 


2 Anno Domini. 






8 Artium 3f agister. 


5 Anno Mundi. 


4 Ante Meridiem,. 


6 Ante Christ/win. 



334 



EKGLISH GRAMMAR.- 



Cash. Cashier. 

Chap. Chapter. 

C. J. Chief Justice. 

Co. Company; County 

Col. Colonel. 

Conn, or Ct. Connecticut. 

Cr. Credit ; Creditor. 

Ct., Cts. Cent, Cents. 

D. C. District of Columbia. 

D. D. Doctor of Divinity. 7 
Dec. ' December. 

Del. Delaware. 

Dft. Defendant. 

Do.,ditto. The same. 

Dolls. Dollars. 

Dr. Doctor, or Debtor. 

E. East. 

Ed. Edition ; Editor. 

e.g. For example. 8 

Eng. England; English. 

Esq. Esquire. 

Et al. And others. 9 

Etc. or &c.And so forth. 10 [ception. 

Ex. Example; Exodus; ex- 

Exr. Executor. 

Feb. February. 

Fla. Florida. 

Fr. France; French. 

Fri. Friday. [ciety. 

F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal So- 
Ga. Georgia. 

Gen. General. 

Gent. Gentleman. 

Gov. Governor. [esty. 

H. B. M. His or Her Britannic Maj- 

H. M. His or Her Majesty. 

Hon. Honorable. 

H. R. House of Representatives 

Hund. Hundred. 

Ind. Indiana. [place. 

Ib.ar Ibid. The same ; in the same 

i.e. That is. 

111. Illinois. [month. 

Inst. Instant, or the present 

Int. Interest. 

la. Iowa. 



7 Doctor Divinitatis. 

8 Exempli gratld. 

9 Et alii. 

10 Et cwtera. 



It. Italian ; Italy. 
Jan. January. 
J. P. Justice of the Peace. 
Jr. or Jun. Junior. 
Kan. Kansas. 
Ky. Kentucky. 
I/at. Latitude. 
L. I. Long Island. 
Lieut. Lieutenant. 
LL.D. Doctor of Laws. 11 
Lon. Longitude. 
Lou, or La. Louisiana. 
L. S. Place of the Seal. 15 
M. Meridian or Noon. 
Maj. Major. 
Mar. March. 
Mass. Massachusetts. 
M. C. Member of Congress. 
M. D. Doctor of Medicine. 13 
Md. Maryland. 
Mdlle. [Fr.] (Mademoiselle), Miss. 
Me. Maine. [men, or Sirs. 
Messrs. [Fr.] (Messieurs), Gentle- 
Mich. Michigan. 
Minn. ' Minnesota. 
Miss. Mississippi. 
Mo. Missouri ; Month. 
■Mons.(wM. Monsieur. 
M. P. Member of Parliament. 
Mr. Master or Mister. 
Mrs. Mistress. 
MS. Manuscript. 
MSS. Manuscripts. 
Mt. Mount or Mountain. 
N. North. 
N. A. North America. 
N.B. Take notice 14 ; New 

Brunswick. 

N. C. North Carolina. [land. 

N. E. Norfch-east ; New Eng- 

Neb. Nebraska. 

N. H. New Hampshire. 

N. J. New Jersey. 

No. Number. 

Nov. November. 

N. S. Nova Scotia; New Style. 

11 Legvm Doctor. 

12 Locus sigilli. 

13 Medicinm Doctor. 

14 Nota bene [note weW]. 





APPENDIX — ABBREVIATIONS. 335 


N. W. 


North-west. 


S. C. South Carolina. 


N.Y. 


New York. 


S. E. South-east. 


0. 


Ohio. 


Sec. Secretary. 


Obj. 


Objective ; Objection. 


Sect. Section, 


Obt. 


Obedient. 


Sen. Senator; Senior. 


Oct. 


October. 


Sept. September. 


0. S. 


Old Style. 


Serg. Sergeant. 


P., pp. 


Page, pa^es. 


Servt. Servant. 


Pa. or Peim. Pennsylvania. 


ss. or viz. Namely or to wit. 13 


Per, or pr. By the ; as, per yard. 


St. Saint ; Street. 


Per cent 


. By the hundred. 


S. T. D. Doctor of Divinity. 19 


Phila. 


Philadelphia. 


S. T. P. Professor of Theology. 20 


P, M. 


Postmaster. 


Supt. Superintendent. 


P.M. 


Afternoon. 15 


S. W. South-west. 


P.O. 


Post-Office. 


Tenn. Tennessee. 


Pop. 


Population. 


Tex. Texas. 


Pres. 


President. 


Ult. Last or the last month. 21 


Prof. 


Professor. 


U. S. United States. 


P 8. 


Postscript. 18 


U. S. A. United States of America, 


Ps. 


Psalm. 


or Army. 


Pub. Doc 


,. Public Documents. 


Va. Virginia. 


Q. or Qu. 


Question. [strated. 17 


Via. By the way of 


Q. E. D. 


Which was to be demon- 


Vol., Vols. Volume, Volumes. 


Qr. 


Quarter. 


V. P. Vice-President. 


Rec'd Pay't. Received Payment. 


Vs. Against ; in opposition. 22 
Vt. ./Vermont. 


Rep. 


Representative. 


Rev 


Reverend ; Revelation. 


W. West. 


R. I. 


Rhode Island. 


W. I. West Indies. 


R.R. 


Railroad. 


Wis. Wisconsin. 


Rt. Hon. 


Right Honorable. 


Wt. Weight. 


S. 


South ; Shilling ; Sign. 


Yr. Year. 


& A. 


Son t.h A m pt*i o a 






KJ \J d-fXJ. J.JLI i iVJXXKjCu. 


18 Videlicet. 






19 Sanctoe Theologiae, Doctor. 


15 Post Meridiem. 

16 Post scriptum. 


20 SanetcB Theologian Professor. 

21 Ultimo. 


17 Quod 


erat demonstrandum. 


22 Versus. 



XIII. WORDS AND PHRASES FROM FOR- 

EIG-N LANGUAGES. 



Apropos 
Beau ideal 
Beau monde 
Coup de main 
Coup de 



French Words and Phrases. 



[ap' ro po], 
[bo i de' al], 
[bo mond'], 
[coo de mang'], 
[coo de so laie'], 



to the point. 
a mode of beauty, 
the fashionable world, 
a dextrous movement. 
a stroke of the sun. 



333 

En masse 
En route 
Expose 
Naivete 
Besurne 
Sangfroid 
Sobriquet 
Tete a tete 



ENGLISH GEAIMAR. 



[an mass'], 
[an root'], 
[ex po za], 
[na/ ev ta], 
[ra zu ma'], 
[sang frwa], 
[so bre ka'], 
[tate' a tate'j, 



in a body. 

on the way. 

an exposition. 

simplicity. 

an abstract or summary. 

in cool blood ; apathy. 

a nickname. 

in close conversation. 



Ad fin' em, 
Ad infini'tum, 
Ad in' ter im, 
Ad lib' i turn, 
Ad nau' se am, 
Ad vd lo' rem, 
A f li as, 
AV i bi, 
AV ma ma' ter, 
An' i mu$, 
Bo ndfV de, 
Corn' pos men' Us, 
Defac' to, 
De' o vo len f te, 
De no' vo, 
Ex eel' si or, 
Ex offi' ci o, 
Ex par' te, 
Ex postfac' to, 
Fac sim f i le, 
Gra' Us, 
In cog' ni to, 
In stan' ter, 
In std' tu quo, 
In to' to, 
Ip' se dix' it, 
Ju' re di vi' no, 
La])' sus lin" gum, 
Lit er a' Urn, 



Latin Words and Phrases. 



to the end. 

to infinity, 

in the mean while. 

at pleasure. 

to disgust. 

according to the val- 

otherwise. [ue. 

elsewhere. 

a benign mother. 

the mind or inten 

in good faith, [tion. 

of a sound mind. 

from the fact. 

with God's will. 

anew. 

higher. 

by virtue of his office. 

on one side only. 

after the fact. 

an exact imitation. 

for nothing. 

unknown. 

instantly. 

in the same state. 

wholly; entirely. 

he himself said it. 

by divine law. 

a slip of the tongue, 

letter for letter. 



Zu' sus na tu' rce, a freak of nature. 
Md'dusoperan'di, mode of operation, 
MuV tuminpdr'vo, much in little. 



Nem. con., 
Ne plus uV tra, 
Per cap' i ta, 
Per dV em, 
Per se, 



without opposition, 
nothing further, 
by the head, 
by the day. 
by itself. 



Pos' se com i ta' tus, an armed body. 
Post mor' tern, after death. 

Pri' ma fa' cie, first view. 
Pro bd' no pub' lied, for the public good. 
Pro et con, for and against. 

Pro tern' po re, for the time being. 



Qvidprb quo, 
Ra' ra a' vis, 
Sic pas' sim, 
Si ne di' e, 
Si ne qua' non, 
Sub rd' sa K 
Su' i gen' e ris, 



an equivalent, 
a rare bird; a prodigy, 
so everywhere, 
without day. 
a thingindispensable 
under the rose, 
of its own kind. 



Sum' mum bo' num, the chief good. 
Ter' rafir' ma, the solid earth. 



VI ti ma' turn, 
Ver bd' Urn, 
Vi' ce ver' sa, 
Vi' va vd' ce, 
Vox De' i, 
Vox pop' u li, 



the last condition, 
word for word, 
change of terms, 
by the living voice, 
the voice of God. 
voice of the people. 



THE END. 









